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Transcribed image text: 2.17 An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60 mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at a uniform temperature T,-77℃ by a circulating fluid.The technique for measuring thermal conductivity is straightforward. A slab of the material to be tested is clamped between a steam chamber, which maintains a constant temperature of 100 °C, and a block of ice, which maintains a constant temperature of 0°C.Thermal conductivity λ is defined as ability of material to transmit heat and it is measured in watts per square metre of surface area for a temperature gradient of 1 K per unit thickness of 1 m.
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2.17 An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60 mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at a uniform temperature T,-77℃ by a circulating fluid. A conduct- ing grease is placed between all the surfaces to ensure good thermal contact. Differential thermocouples are imbedded in the samples with a spacing of 15 mm. The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure one- dimensional heat transfer through the samples Plate, To AT Sample Heater leads Insulation Sample 2 Plate, To (a) With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the heater draws 0.353 A at 100V, and the differential thermocouples indicate ΔΤΙ ΞΔΙ2Ξ 25.0°C. What is the thermal conductivity of the stainless steel sam- ple material? What is the average temperature of the samples? Compare your result with the thermal con- ductivity value reported for this material in Table A.1 (b) By mistake, an Armco iron sample is placed in the lower position of the apparatus with one of the SS316 samples from part (a) in the upper portion. For this situation, the heater draws 0.601 A at 100V, and the differential thermocouples indicate ΔΤι ΔΤ, 15.0°C. What are the thermal conductivity and aver- age temperature of the Armco iron sample?
Answer:
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What is thermal conductivity apparatus?
The technique for measuring thermal conductivity is straightforward. A slab of the material to be tested is clamped between a steam chamber, which maintains a constant temperature of 100 °C, and a block of ice, which maintains a constant temperature of 0°C.
What is thermal conductivity measure in?
Thermal conductivity λ is defined as ability of material to transmit heat and it is measured in watts per square metre of surface area for a temperature gradient of 1 K per unit thickness of 1 m.
How do you measure the thermal conductivity of an object?
For measuring thermal conductivity, there are four main types of measurement setups: the guarded hot plate (GHP), the heat‐flow meter (HFM), the hot wire, and laser flash diffusivity.
Why do we measure thermal conductivity?
Time-domain thermoreflectance is a method by which the thermal properties of a material can be measured, most importantly thermal conductivity. This method can be applied most notably to thin film materials, which have properties that vary greatly when compared to the same materials in bulk.
How do you measure thermal conductivity experimentally?
There are several methods of experimentally determining thermal conductivity, such as the steady state or comparative method, the radial flow method, the laser-flash diffusivity method, and the pulse-power method [1].
How do you measure the thermal conductivity of a good conductor?
Measure the thermal conductivity of Copper using the Searle’s bar method. This experiment uses steam heating. Be careful to avoid touching the hot surfaces of the steam generator, tubing and the Searle’s bar apparatus. Make sure that the steam outlet tube from the apparatus goes to a sink.
How do you measure thermal conductivity of a liquid?
From a given time we pass an electric current through a thin straight wire, placed in a homogeneous material of which the thermal conductivity is to be measured. The constant heat production in the wire causes a cylindrical temperature field in the material.
How is thermal conductivity of a material determined?
The thermal conductivity of a specific material is highly dependent on a number of factors. These include the temperature gradient, the properties of the material, and the path length that the heat follows.
What determines the thermal conductivity of a material?
The thermal conductivity of a material depends on its temperature, density and moisture content. The thermal conductivity normally found in tables is the value valid for normal room temperature. This value will not differ much between 273 and 343 K (0 — 70° C).
How do you measure thermal conductivity of a polymer?
The temperature of the lower end surface of the disk and the heat flowing into the disk are measured by the DSC. The thermal conductivity of the sample can then be calculated from the temperature difference between upper and lower end surfaces of the disk and the heat flow.
What is Searle’s apparatus for thermal conductivity?
Searle’s apparatus for determination of thermal conductivity. It consists of a metallic rod having two gaps is known as the distance of separation. The rod is heated by circulating stem and next is cooled by circulating cold water.
What is meant by thermal conductivity of metals?
Thermal conductivity refers to the amount/speed of heat transmitted through a material. Heat transfer occurs at a higher rate across materials of high thermal conductivity than those of low thermal conductivity.
What components does a conductivity apparatus possess?
The conductivity apparatus is made up of a light bulb, a crucible, the connecting wires, and a bunsen burner.
What is conductivity of a material?
Conductivity is the measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass through a material. A conductor is a material which gives very little resistance to the flow of an electric current or thermal energy. Materials are classified as metals, semiconductors, and insulators.
An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60 mm,
2.17 An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60 mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at a uniform temperature T,-77℃ by a circulating fluid. A conduct- ing grease is placed between all the surfaces to ensure good thermal contact. Differential thermocouples are imbedded in the samples with a spacing of 15 mm. The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure one- dimensional heat transfer through the samples Plate, To AT Sample Heater leads Insulation Sample 2 Plate, To (a) With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the heater draws 0.353 A at 100V, and the differential thermocouples indicate ΔΤΙ ΞΔΙ2Ξ 25.0°C. What is the thermal conductivity of the stainless steel sam- ple material? What is the average temperature of the samples? Compare your result with the thermal con- ductivity value reported for this material in Table A.1 (b) By mistake, an Armco iron sample is placed in the lower position of the apparatus with one of the SS316 samples from part (a) in the upper portion. For this situation, the heater draws 0.601 A at 100V, and the differential thermocouples indicate ΔΤι ΔΤ, 15.0°C. What are the thermal conductivity and aver- age temperature of the Armco iron sample?
An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at
An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and length 60mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at a uniform temperature T{eq}_0 {/eq}= 77{eq}^{\circ} {/eq}C by a circulating fluid. A conducting grease is placed between all the surfaces to ensure good thermal contact. Differential thermocouples are imbedded in the samples with a spacing of 15 mm. The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure one dimensional heat transfer through the samples. With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the heater draws 0.353 A at 100 V, and the differential thermocouples indicate Delta T{eq}_1 {/eq} = Delta T{eq}_2 {/eq} = 25.0 {eq}^{\circ} {/eq} C. What is the thermal conductivity of the stainless steel sample material? What is the average temperature of the samples?
To analyze heat transfer behavior of insulations, a guarded hot plate or a heat‐flow meter is usually used. The hot‐wire and flash method use special devices for consolidated insulation specimens. The laser flash method is often employed for highly conductive ceramics, metals, and some composites [ 2 ]. The thermal conductivity of large specimens of refractory material is measured by using hot‐wire systems [ 2 ]. Figure 1 provides a comparison of measurement methods and material types for the ranges of thermal conductivity [ 2 ].
For measuring thermal conductivity, there are four main types of measurement setups: the guarded hot plate (GHP), the heat‐flow meter (HFM), the hot wire, and laser flash diffusivity. The usage of these tools/methods differs in technique, material type, intended specimen size, measurement time, capability, and measurement methodology [ 5 ].
Compared to electrical and thermal transport, the ratios of thermal conductivities of the best conduction and insulation conditions are significative and determinative magnitudes. Therefore, instruments for thermal property identification are often designed only for specific kinds of materials or temperature ranges. Table 1 presents a comparison of the most common methods of thermal conductivity measurement [ 7 ]. Measurement systems can also be divided into three categories based on the operating temperature of the apparatus: (1) room temperature operation (20–25°C), (2) below room temperature operation (down to about –180°C), and (3) high-temperature operation (up to 600°C or above) [ 8 ]. A given measurement system is often optimized for one of these temperature ranges.
The non‐steady‐state or transient technique records a measurement during the heating process. The method determines thermal conductivity properties by means of transient sensors. These measurements can be made relatively quickly, which garners an advantage over steady‐state techniques [ 4 , 5 , 7 ]. For this reason, numerous solutions have been derived for the transient heat conduction equation by using one‐, two‐, three‐dimensional geometries [ 7 ]. Transient methods generally employ needle probes or wires [ 4 ].
The steady‐state technique records a measurement when a tested material’s thermal state reaches complete equilibrium [ 5 ]. A steady‐state condition is attained when the temperature at each point of the specimen is constant and the temperature does not change with time. A disadvantage, however, is that it generally takes a long time to reach the required equilibrium [ 4 , 5 ]. The method involves expensive method apparatus since a well‐designed experimental installation system is usually needed. Nevertheless, it is the primary and most accurate measurement method.
There are a number of methods to measure thermal conductivity. In general, there are two basic techniques for measuring thermal conductivity: steady‐state methods and transient or non‐steady‐state methods [ 1 , 3 ]. Each of these methods is suitable for a limited range of materials, and they are based on the fundamental laws of heat conduction and electrical analogy. Steady‐state methods have been traditionally used since they are mathematically simpler. There is an important distinction between steady‐state and transient techniques [ 4 , 5 ]. Transient heat transfer methods are capable of directly determining thermal diffusivity, whereas steady‐state methods are considered to be more accurate than transient methods for testing dry materials [ 6 ].
Insulation materials such as natural or man‐made materials differ concerning the material structure and the range of use. To develop insulation materials in an economically and environmentally friendly manner, it is essential to have knowledge and control over their thermal conductivities. The properties can vary with temperature, pressure, and composition, affecting the transfer of heat. To answer the following questions, thermal conductivity must be known [ 2 ].
In the study, a survey concerning available experimental techniques for the measurements is conducted. The main focus is on descriptive measurement methods, and their ranges of the thermal conductivity and temperature are determined. The objective is to analyze a measurement apparatus designed to determine effective thermal conductivity of insulation materials. The other aim of this chapter is to figure out the models for the effective thermal conductivity of insulation materials. The prediction of the property has been determined using experimental and analytical models in different studies. The accuracy of any method and model is limited by physical properties and other factors. However, measurement and modeling of thermal conductivity are difficult and require high precision in the determination of the various parameters involved in the calculations. To analyze thermal behavior of materials, the methods and the models must be clearly known and defined.
In the field of thermal insulation technology, many developments during the last two decades have enhanced the accuracy of measurement techniques as well as the current understanding of the principles of heat transfer through different materials. These techniques are thus differentiated mainly by the range of thermal conductivity, the range of material types, measurement time, measurement accuracy, specimen type, and temperature range.
The accuracy of manufacturers’ claimed values for thermal properties is sometimes questionable since the thermal data for certain materials are often incomplete and lacking in important information. When values for insulation types are quoted, manufacturers do not always report the density and temperature of the materials tested. In general, the “effective” thermal conductivities of the materials depend on the constituents and/or voids present in the different characteristics of their structures as well as the density and temperature of the material.
The development of technologies leads to changes in demand. Insulation materials are created in several forms including porous form, blanket or batt form, rigid form, natural form, foamed structure, and reflective structure. Fiber and polymer products are the most commonly used types of thermal insulation. Many studies have examined the impact of various parameters on the thermal performance of insulation materials. Extensive investigations have focused on heat transfer in these materials in the context of their numerous and varied applications. The thermal conductivity in these applications is one of the most important challenges facing thermal, mechanical, material, and civil engineers. In various fields, the accuracy of different techniques for evaluating thermal conductivity and other properties is widely debated as a fundamental parameter. As a result of the wide range of thermal properties of insulation materials, there is no single measurement method for all thermal conductivity measurements [ 1 ].
This technique has been modified for use with a variety of solids, ranging from insulation materials (20 mW/(m K)) to metals (200 W/(m K)) and evaluating for temperatures between room temperature and 2770 K [ 7 ]. This technique can be modified to collect data over time for the simultaneous measurement of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, and these kinds of transient methods are gaining increased interest.
The pipe method takes advantage of a radial heat flow in a cylindrical specimen. A core heater, which is a tube, rod, or wire, is inserted into the central axis of the pipe‐shaped specimen. There are heaters at both ends of the specimen. The combination of the specimen and heaters is surrounded by thermal insulation and then a water jacket or a liquid‐cooled heat sink. Figure 4(b) shows the schematic and components of the pipe method. End guard heaters can be used to minimize axial heat loss, and also increasing the specimen’s ratio of length to diameter can achieve the same purpose. The thermal conductivity is obtained by measuring the radial heat flow ϕ [ 7 ]:
The specimen, such as a wire, pipe, or rod, is placed in a vacuum chamber, clamped between two heat sinks cooled by liquid, and the specimen is heated up to temperatures in the range of 300–4000 K [ 7 ]. Figure 4(a) portrays the schematic of the design of the direct heating method. Voltage drops and temperatures are measured: in the middle of the rod and on each end of the rod. From these three measurements obtained in the direct heating method, the thermal conductivity and the specific electric resistivity k is given as [ 7 ]
Two disadvantages of steady‐state methods are the lengthy time requirements and the difficulty of determining heat loss, especially at high temperatures. These disadvantages can be overcome by the direct heating method, which can be used for electrically conductive materials such as metals.
Compared to the guarded hot‐plate method, which is an absolute method, the heat‐flow meter method is comparative and thus can be considered to be a relative method. Insulation materials and polymers ( k < 0.3 W/(m K)) are usually tested via the heat‐flow meter method, and sometimes it is used for glasses and ceramics and for other materials with thermal conductivities lower than about 5 W/(m K) [ 7 ]. For insulation materials at about room temperature, the measurement uncertainties are approximately 3%, and at high temperatures the uncertainties are between 10 and 20% [ 7 ]. Heat flux sensors are most often composed of a series of connections of thermocouples spanning a thermal resistor, e.g., a thin ceramic or plastic plate [ 7 ]. A second heat flux is occasionally applied at the cold plate is in order to measure radial heat loss and also to reduce the time needed for the measurement. This reduction in time poses an advantage for this method when measuring of insulation materials. The temperature of the plates is measured and adjusted to the desired set point when reaching a constant value. Steady‐state conditions occur when the amount of heat flux is equal at each point of the layered system. After thermal equilibrium is established, the test is determined under the conditions. In order to calculate thermal conductivity, the steady‐state temperatures, the specimen's thickness, the specimen's metered area, and the heat flux input to the hot plate are used. The heat flux output is usually calibrated with various reference standards, e.g., in a guarded hot‐plate apparatus. The specimen is placed between two plates held in different temperatures, with one being heated and the other plate being cooled, as shown in Figure 3. Instead of using a main heater as in the guarded hot‐plate method, heat flux transducers are used to measure the heat flow through the specimen. The heat flux is determined in a current with the measurement of a voltage drop through an electrical resistor. Sensors provide an electrical output signal. The measured signal and the change in thermovoltage is proportional to the drop in temperature drop occurring throughout the plate. The heat‐flow meter is described in various standards for tests. The heat‐flow meter design resembles to setup of the single‐specimen guarded hot‐plate apparatus. The basic idea of the heat‐flow meter is deducing the heat flux based on the measurement of a drop in temperature throughout a thermal resistor. The way for heat flux measurement is carried out either by using a certified well‐known reference specimen or a heat flux sensor. The use of heat‐flow meters is based on substantially the same principles as other measurement techniques, but it is not identical to them [ 13 , 17 , 18 ]. The main disadvantage of the guarded hot‐plate methods is that they are very time consuming, as stated above. In contrast, heat‐flow meters are accurate and fast apparatuses, and the operation of these apparatuses is easy for measuring the thermal conductivity of low‐conductivity materials [ 2 ]. The method is based on the improvement in accuracy and speed of the measurement. The maximum temperature limits are approximately 200°C for the heat‐flow meter method [ 7 ] and about 100°C in practical applications [ 2 ]. The guarded hot‐plate and cylinder method exemplify a measurement principle that has been optimized for different ranges of thermal conductivity. The guarded hot‐plate method can be used to test the thermal properties of nonmetals such as thermal insulation materials, polymers glasses, and ceramics, as well as liquids and gases in the temperature range between about 80 and 800 K [ 7 ]. The thermal conductivities of metals (approximately up to 500 W/(m K) in a temperature range between about 4 and 1000 K) can be tested via the cylinder method of employing axial heat flow. The GHP method is appropriate for these kinds of metal because the determination of the temperature difference is the main challenge when measuring materials with high thermal conductivity (e.g., metals). In these kinds of tests, the contact resistances between the specimen and the heater or the cold plate must be considered [ 7 ]. The guarded hot‐plate method under a vacuum is based on an absolute measurement method for research and therefore requires no calibration standards. Furthermore, this can be seen as an absolute measurement, regardless of vacuum conditions. The plate system is placed in a vacuum medium. The measurements can be carried out under a vacuum as well as under atmospheric or defined pressure levels. The system requires a symmetry and two specimens for each test. With a guarded heater and/or thermal insulation, a relative uncertainty of 2% for thermal conductivity measurements of can be achieved. Each plate and the guard ring/heater are connected to a separate control system with temperature sensor(s) and an assigned power supply. For the shapes in cylinder forms, radial heat‐flow steady‐state methods are observed. The specimen completely encloses the heating source in this method, eliminating end losses. The lateral effects are assumed to be insignificant either because the ratio of length to diameter of the test apparatus is large or because guard heaters are used. It is assumed that the surface of the central heater at a diameter r 1 and the outer specimen surface at diameter r 2 reach the same temperature after the steady state is established. The thermal conductivity can be determined based on “the heating power, the length of the cylinder, the temperature differential between two internally located sensors, and their radial position” [ 16 ]. Because of practical application difficulties, the cylinder (and sphere) method is not popular. Nevertheless, this method is applied and used to measure thermal conductivity using the cylinder shape method. where the heat flow Q is obtained by measuring a power P (or half power for two specimen) generated in an electrical heater. The heat conduction equation for homogenous isotropic materials without using internal heat generation is given for the steady state in Eq. (1) . These methods depend on Fourier‐Biot law of heat conduction [ 1 , 3 , 14 ]. Its modified equation forms can be used for one‐dimensional steady heat flow across different sizes, such as plate, cylinder, and sphere. It is assumed that the measured heat power rate is transferred across the specimen due to guarded heaters. After thermal equilibrium has developed and the heating and cooling plates are kept in stable temperatures, the thermal conductivity can be calculated from the input values. The input values are the heat power Q , the temperature differential across the specimen ( T hot − T cold ), the specimen thickness (Δ x ), and the heat transfer area (center metered area, A ). The thermal conductivity is computed by measuring the quantity of heat input under the steady‐state temperature profile in the entire specimen [ 1 , 3 , 14 ]. From the measured input values, the effective thermal conductivity can be calculated using the following unidirectional steady‐state heat transfer equation: The specimens of the homogeneous material with the same thickness are interposed between the hot guard heaters and the cold plates. For two specimen apparatuses, the auxiliary heaters may be placed above and below the specimens. A well‐defined, user‐selectable temperature difference is established between the hot and the cold plates. The power rate input in the hot plate with metered area A is measured when thermal equilibrium is reached at steady‐state conditions. When the control system is used, the plate temperatures reach stability. These heat measurements are recorded by differential thermocouples, which are instruments that control a flat electrically heated metering area that is surrounded on all lateral sides by a guard heater section. The heated section provides the planar heat source applied to the hot face of the specimens [ 8 ]. Heat is supplied to the metered area (the central heater) at an assigned heat power rate. The temperature of the guard heater is maintained at the same temperature as the metered section by using a control system. The adjacent thermal guard surfaces and/or plates are held at the same temperature range, and ideally no heat leakage occurs from the source, the specimen, or the boundaries. This is aimed at ensuring a one‐dimensional thermal heat flow in the actual and practical test section, corresponding solely to the central metered heater. In addition, the apparatus is surrounded by thermal insulation, as well as guard heaters. And, the hot/cold metal parts are positioned between the heaters/cooling plates and each specimen. The parts matched the same frame design are adjacent to the related side (hot or cold) temperature sensors [ 13 ]. A data acquisition system is connected to the temperature sensors and the electrical power supply devices, which are in turn controlled by a closed‐loop control system. The electrical heating is placed into the plates in a certain shape or form, such as a square or a circular shape. The guarded plate (ring), the central plate (metered area), and the auxiliary heater can all be arranged in this manner. The apparatus must test two specimens simultaneously in the form of a slab with a standard size (such as 300 mm × 300 mm or different sizes). A fixed heat rate must be applied by an electric heater. This arrangement produces a heat flow across the two specimens, flowing outward toward two plates chilled by a Peltier or a liquid cooling system. In the two specimen apparatus, the main advantage is that heat loss from the hot plate can be controlled more effectively due to the symmetrical arrangement of the specimen on each side of the heater. Unlike the single‐specimen method, the symmetrical setup can be used for investigating solid materials. For measuring the conductivity of nonsolid materials, it is necessary to heat the specimen from the top in order to avoid convection [ 7 ]. The guarded hot‐plate setup is comprised of cold plates, a hot plate, a system of guard heaters, and thermal insulation. Hot plate is electrically heated and the cold plates are Peltier coolers or liquid‐cooled heat sinks. The configuration is arranged symmetrically, with guarded hot plates located on the sides while the heater unit is sandwiched between two specimens or a single specimen and an auxiliary layer ( Figure 2 ). The different types of guarded hot‐plate apparatus are shown in Figure 2 . In the single‐sided system state, the heat flow passes through one specimen, while the top of the main heater acts as an insulating guard, thus ensuring an adiabatic environment [ 8 ]. The guarded hot‐plate measurements are analyzed on the fundamental of the heat transfer in the infinite slab geometry. Since specimen dimensions are finite, unidirectional heat flow is achieved through the use of guard heaters. The temperature of a thermal guard is maintained at the same temperature as its adjacent surface (which is considered as an auxiliary heater/heat sink), in order to prevent heat loss from the specimen and heat source/heat sink, and as a result, unidirectional heat flow is attained [ 1 ]. After a steady state is reached, the heating and cooling plates have stable temperatures. Then the thermal conductivity can be determined based on the heat input, the temperature difference through the specimen, the thickness of the specimen, and the size of the metered area of heat transfer. Steady‐state conditions may change with respect to specimen type, specimen size, and mean temperature [ 14 ]. The GHP is most suitable for dry homogeneous specimens [ 15 ], but it is unsuitable for materials in which there is a potentiality for moisture migration [ 16 ]. Another advantage is that the GHP method is standardized in countries such as the United States (ASTM C 177‐63), Great Britain (B.S. 874:1965), and Germany (DIN 52612) [ 13 ]. The details of this method are provided by the American Society for Testing Material (ASTM) Standards associated with the method and/or materials [ 1 ]. The details of this standard are partly based on the difficulty of attaining steady‐state conditions [ 11 ], accurately adjusting the temperatures in conventional plates (guarded, hot, and cold), and design conditions. Despite these disadvantages, the standardized GHP method is the ideal apparatus for researchers and scientists in the field of insulation testing and it is considered an absolute measurement method. The practical applicability requires careful consideration of the array content: (a) attaining steady‐state conditions; (b) the unidirectional heat flow in the area under analysis, the temperatures of the hot and cold surfaces, and the specimens’ thickness; and (c) other factors influencing the unidirectional heat flow [ 8 ]. The experimental setup of the guarded hot plate employs a steady‐state heat transfer between a hot plate and a cold plate. However, the accuracy of this method is questionable, interlaboratory comparisons of GHP calculations have revealed discrepancies among 20 different GHPs used at different times [ 5 ]. The individual results of these 20 GHPs diverged significantly from reference values, ranging from +13 to −16% [ 5 , 11 ]. The guarded hot plate, also known as the Poensgen apparatus [ 11 ], is the most commonly used and most effective method for measuring the thermal conductivity of insulation materials. The GHP relies on a steady temperature difference over a known thickness of a specimen and its primary purpose is to control the heat flow through the material. One disadvantage is that establishing a steady‐state temperature gradient through a specimen is time‐consuming when using the GHP and other steady‐state techniques. Other potential disadvantages are that the temperature gradient must be relatively large, the specimen width must be large, and also that the contact resistance between the thermocouple and the specimen surface poses a major source of error [ 12 ]. Although Reference [ 12 ] cites large specimen size as a potential disadvantage, size is usually not a serious issue [ 8 ]. Steady‐state methods apply Fourier's law of heat conduction to measure thermal conductivity. The solution to the problems with the different steady heat‐flow methods is to convert the heat transfer problem to a one‐dimensional problem, thus simplifying the mathematics. The calculations change for the models of an infinite slab, an infinite cylinder, or a sphere. The typical specimen geometry, the configuration of a measurement system, and the magnitude of the thermal conductivity are used to distinguish between different types of thermal conductivity measurements. The thermal magnitude of the measuring object is determined by the following measuring techniques using the direction of the heat flow, the conservation of the heat flow, and an auxiliary layer having a known thermal property. 3. Transient methods The advantages of transient methods are mainly distinguished by the short amount time needed, so that various thermal values can be determined in the measurement process. Therefore, this method is based on a signal measurement and an acceptably small temperature differential. The transient technique is measured by evaluating the feedback response after a signal is transmitted to the specimen for heat generation in the specimen. Therefore, test time is obtained in a few minutes or a subsecond time intervals for transient methods. This method is also more appropriate for high moisture content materials because of the signal and response in the specimen. In many cases, it is possible to replace the temperature measurements at two opposite surfaces with a measurement as a function of time at only one position on the specimen [7]. Among transient methods, the hot‐wire and the laser flash methods are commonly used for measuring the thermal conductivity of different materials provided in Table 1. A modification of the hot‐wire method is the hot‐strip or disk technique, which can be applied to solid nonelectrically conducting materials in order to measure the thermal diffusivity and conductivity [12]. 3.1. Hot‐wire method This method is a transient technique based on recording the rise in temperature at a defined distance from the heat source. The hot‐wire technique is a good method to determine the thermal conductivity of liquids. In the hot‐wire method, the specimen preparation is simplified by the use of a heat source, except in the case of solids. When solids are being tested, the wire is situated between two equally sized homogeneous specimens, as shown in Figure 5. The hot wire is embedded in small channels, because it is important to ensure sufficiently low contact resistance between solid specimens and the heating wire [7]. For this reason, the hot‐wire method is avoided in favor of an increasingly popular variation, the hot‐strip method, which is used for measurements on solids. In the standard transient hot‐wire technique (Figure 5), the wire system (often made of platinum) is recorded as two functions of a temperature sensor and heater [7]. One modification of this technique is the probe method, which uses a probe instead of a wire. This probe configuration is useful whenever the specimen conductivity is calculated based on the response of a probe inserted into the specimen. A similar theory underlies both the non‐steady‐state line heat source (hot wire) method and the probe method for the measurement of thermal conductivity. Both methods are practical for measuring the thermal conductivity of “biological materials, insulations, rocks, ceramics, foods, soils, and glass over a wide range of temperatures” [9]. Thus, the probe method is applied to low‐conductivity materials in powder or semirigid form. A closely controlled furnace is used to produce the base temperatures for the tests of the thermal properties of the specimen, soils, in situ [10]. Thermal conductivity is calculated by comparing the plot of the wire temperature versus the logarithm of time, as long as density and capacity are given or measured. The hot‐wire method is also capable of measuring the thermal conductivity of gases as well as refractories, such as insulating bricks, fibrous, or powder materials [10]. The technique can be adapted for measuring the properties of liquids and plastics of relatively low thermal conductivity [8]. It is practical for foams, fluids, and melted plastics, but it is impractical for solids [5]. The probe containing the heater and the thermocouple measures instantaneous changes in temperature. Once a predetermined amount of current travels through the heater for a limited period of time, the temperature change of the heater's surface is determined in a characteristic form. After the heat begins to flow from the probe to the specimen side, it reaches the outer surface of the specimen side. When the rise slows down or stops altogether due to heat losses into the environment, the rate of rise with time becomes constant. The thermal conductivity can be calculated based on the linear portion of the temperature versus time curve [8]. The thermal conductivity of the line heat source or probe methods is determined as in Ref. [19]. k = q 4 π ( T ( t ) − T 0 ) ln ( 4 t α r 2 C ) E4 neglecting convection and radiation heat losses. Where q is the heat flow per unit length of the source and ln( C ) = 0.5772 is Euler's constant. r is the wire radius and α is the sample thermal diffusivity. Thus, the thermal conductivity can be calculated based on the temperature rise at two different times (or the slope of the temperature rise compared to the logarithm of time) and from the strength of the heat source [16]. The use of a stabilized electrical power supply ensures that the heat source produces a constant output. In order to eliminate the interference of axial conduction via the large‐diameter current supply, leads are connected to the ends of the hot wire, and also two hot wires of differing lengths are utilized in a differential mode [7]. The other variations of the hot‐wire method are the cross wire and the parallel‐wire techniques. In the parallel technique, the heater and temperature sensor are separated from each other. In the cross‐wire technique, the heating wire is in contact with the thermocouple [20]. The parallel‐wire method is advantageous when applied to anisotropic materials and for materials in the magnitude of a thermal conductivity above 2 W/(m K) [20]. The parallel‐wire technique can be used for thermal conductivities below 20 W/m K. The cross‐wire technique can be used to measure thermal conductivities below 2 W/m K [2]. Another use of the method is a steady‐state pipe method having a cylindrical specimen geometry and containing radial heat‐flow measurements [7, 21, 22]. This technique is considered to be a transient radial flow technique, so isotropic specimens are required. Although the pipe method has the disadvantage of deviations from the radial symmetric temperature field with respect to the wire method, adequate mathematical model and evaluation procedure can compensate for this disadvantage [7, 23, 24]. 3.2. Hot‐disk method The transient plane source (TPS) technique is a recent development of the hot‐strip method. It is also known as the Gustafsson probe or the hot‐disk method. The technique is designed to measure both thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. The advantage of transient technique to steady‐state technique is that the effect of the contact resistance is eliminated in the analysis. This method ensures accurate measurements over a thermal conductivity range from 0.005 to 500 W/(m K) over temperatures from 30 to 1200 K [25]. The TPS technique is used for measuring the thermal conductivity of insulation materials and electrically conducting materials [12]. The main advantages of the hot‐disk measurement are that it produces results quickly (usually in under 10 min), and that different sensor sizes can be used to accommodate different specimen types. Furthermore, the hot disk requires using specimen sizes that are usually much smaller than those used in other techniques [12]. The hot‐strip method is very similar to the hot‐wire technique with the exception of an extended strip. The strip is a metal foil between two specimens or a thin metal film on the surface of a plane specimen. Materials studied so far with this system include metals, alloys, ceramics including high conducting ceramics like Aluminium nitride (AlN), high critical temperature materials, minerals, polymers, composites, glass, fabrics, paper, glass wool, foam, powder, biomaterial, and liquids, as well as materials with anisotropic thermal properties [25]. The hot‐disk method utilizes a sensor in the shape of a double spiral of nickel covered material. The TPS sensor consists of a number of concentric circles that are made into a double spiral so that the current will travel from one end to the other. A thin polymer coating material is used as electrical insulation and sensor protection on the spiral. The coating materials are most commonly Kapton for measuring temperature ranges between 30 and 450 K, Mica for higher temperatures of up to 1200 K [25], and Teflon. The sensor acts as both a heat source and a thermometer. The source and the thermometer are used to determine the changes in the temperature of the specimen and the increase in the time‐dependent temperature, respectively. The sensor is sandwiched between two pieces of the specimen, as shown in Figure 6. During testing, a current travels through the nickel spiral and causes an increase in temperature. The generated heat dissipates throughout the specimen on either side. By comparing the temperature versus the time response in the sensor, thermal conductivity or diffusivity can be calculated accurately [26, 27]. The hot‐wire and guarded hot‐plate techniques considerably require both larger specimens and a precisely known thickness. While the guarded hot‐plate method is a time‐consuming method for requiring a temperature gradient across the specimen, the hot‐disk method provides instant and direct measurement and the reading is obtained in a short amount of time. In contrast, the guarded hot plate is inherently subject to error due to contact resistance between the thermocouple and the specimen surface. Even at different conductivity levels, a negative influence is unavoidable with the guarded hot‐plate method. The hot‐disk method, on the other hand, only gathers data regarding from heat diffusion in material for its calculations [26]. As a result, the test procedure of the steady‐state method (i.e., the guarded hot plate) is superior to the hot‐wire method for testing nonisotropic materials despite the long duration of those steady‐state measurements, the higher costs of the steady‐state apparatus due to the high reliability in the entire temperature range investigated [28]. It is also in the agreement between the thermal measurements and practical application of insulations [28]. Thus, the hot‐wire method should not be employed for determining the thermal conductivity of nonisotropic materials (fiber mats), for which this method is totally ineffective in ranges with a low extinction coefficient, i.e., low bulk densities [28]. On the other hand, one study of the isotropic materials demonstrated that the transient hot‐wire method proved to be most dependable due its high reliability and low amount of effort, time, and cost required [28]. For glass fiber, the measured conductivities by hot‐disk analyzer are 20 and 12% higher than the claimed values for the lower and higher densities, respectively [12]. For the lower density, the conductivity determined for the rock wool with the hot‐disk method harmonizes with the claimed value; the measured value is 8% higher than the claimed conductivity for the higher density [12]. The TPS technique can be used to study liquids, solids, pastes, and powders (electrically conducting or insulating). The TPS technique can provide the values without the interference of thermal contact resistance, without prolonged measurement times, and without extensive specimen preparation [26]. 3.3. Laser flash method The laser flash method is the most commonly used method for ascertaining the thermal properties of solids. The method can investigate to properties of glasses, metals, and ceramics without significant limitations due to uncertainties of the achievable measurement [7]. The property can be measured in a temperature range between −100 and about 3000°C. In this method, the thermal diffusivity α is determined, and if given the specific heat capacity and the density of a material, the thermal conductivity can be calculated by using the following equation (Eq. (6)) under adiabatic conditions: α = 0.138 d 2 t 1 / 2 → α = k ρ c p E5 An instantaneous heat pulse is generated by the laser energy. The thermal diffusivity is calculated based on the thickness d of the specimen (typically 2 mm) and the time t 1/2 [20]. This value represents the time required for the back side surface temperature to reach a value equal to half its maximum value. In the method, a laser pulse is send to the front side of a specimen, and the temperature change on the back side is measured. The method is conducted through heating a specimen with a short laser pulse of 1 ms width on the front side of the specimen. The temperature increase at its rear side is measured and determined. Figure 7 shows the schematic and the principle of the method. There have been several developments in the method since its introduction by Parker et al. (1961) [29]. The some modifications have been developed to determine directly the thermal conductivity by performing measurement of the specific heat capacity. The laser flash method has the advantage of involving neither temperature nor heat-flow measurements for the determination of a thermal property. The measurement of the thermal diffusivity is calculated based on the relative temperature change as a function of time only. The main result of this fact is that even at high temperatures the relative measurement uncertainties in the 3–5% range can be achieved [30–32]. 3.4. The 3‐ω method The method called the 3‐ω method is commonly used for measuring the thermal conductivity of thin films and solid materials. The range of thermal conductivity is changed of 0.20–20 W/(m K), and the range can be extended to 77– 900 K in literature. The method is a similar method to that of the hot wire. While the hot‐wire method is a time domain transient technique, the 3‐ω method has the advantage of being time independent because it measures electrical signals in a specific frequency domain [33]. An AC current with frequency ω of angular modulation is passed through the wire [34]. The wire is used simultaneously as a heater and a thermometer. The heat generated by this process diffuses into the specimen. Since the electrical resistance of the metal heater is proportional (linear) to the temperature, the temperature oscillation can be measured indirectly by measuring the associated 3ω voltage [34]. Because the current is driven at a frequency ω and the resistance changes at a frequency 2ω, a voltage at 3ω results [34]. In this method, a thin electrically conductive wire is patterned on the specimen, as shown in Figure 8 [35]. Both basic mechanisms generally affect in‐plane ( x ) and cross‐plane ( z ) transport differently, so that the thermal conductivity of related materials is usually anisotropic. The method measures the average thermal conductivity in the in‐plane and cross‐plane directions. The combination between the heater wire width and the thin film thickness determines the measurement sensitivity according to the in‐plane and cross‐plane thermal properties of the film [16]. 3.5. Fitch method The Fitch method developed by Fitch is used to measure the materials of low thermal conductivity by using a plane source of heat. This method consists of two components: a heat source and a heat receiver. The heat source is a vessel filled with a constant temperature liquid that functions as a sink. The heat receiver is a sink in the form of a copper plug insulated all sides but the one facing the vessel [36]. The roles of the heat source and the heat receiver can be changed if the vessel is at a temperature lower than that of the copper block. The specimen is interposed between the vessel and the open face of the plug. The sample is firstly in thermal equilibrium with the copper block as shown in Figure 9. The vessel is brought into contact with the specimen under a temperature differential. The temperature history of the copper block and the temperature of the bottom of the vessel are measured by thermocouples. It is assumed to have a uniform temperature distribution. A change of time and the temperature are measured, and the thermal conductivity of specimen is calculated using the following equation [37]: k = Δ x . m c . c p c A . t ln ( T 0 − T ∞ ) ( T − T ∞ ) , E6 where c pc , ∆ x , and A are the heat capacity of the copper block, and the thickness and heat transfer area of the specimen. The heat transfer from the copper block to insulation, the heat storage in the specimen, and the surface contact resistance are assumed to be negligible under a linear temperature profile. This method is generally used for measuring the conductivity of foods and specially small‐sized specimens. But the Fitch method is not practical for use at high temperatures. In this method, either a line heat source or one or more heat sources are used [16].
Thermal conductivity measurement
There are a number of possible ways to measure thermal conductivity, each of them suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties and the medium temperature. Three classes of methods exist to measure the thermal conductivity of a sample: steady-state, time-domain, and frequency-domain methods.
Steady-state methods [ edit ]
In general, steady-state techniques perform a measurement when the temperature of the material measured does not change with time. This makes the signal analysis straightforward (steady state implies constant signals). The disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually needed.
Steady-state methods, in general, work by applying a known heat flux, Q ( W / m 2 ) {\displaystyle Q(W/m^{2})} , to a sample with a surface area, A ( m 2 ) {\displaystyle A(m^{2})} , and thickness, x ( m ) {\displaystyle x(m)} ; once the sample’s steady-state temperature is reached, the difference in temperature, Δ T {\displaystyle \Delta T} , across the thickness of the sample is measured. After assuming one-dimensional heat flow and an isotropic medium, Fourier’s Law is then used to calculate the measured thermal conductivity, k {\displaystyle k} :
Q ˙ = − k A Δ T x {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=-kA{\frac {\Delta T}{x}}}
Major sources of error in steady-state measurements include radiative and convective heat losses in the setup, as well as errors in the thickness of the sample propagating to the thermal conductivity.
In geology and geophysics, the most common method for consolidated rock samples is the divided bar. There are various modifications to these devices depending on the temperatures and pressures needed as well as sample sizes. A sample of unknown conductivity is placed between two samples of known conductivity (usually brass plates). The setup is usually vertical with the hot brass plate at the top, the sample in between then the cold brass plate at the bottom. Heat is supplied at the top and made to move downwards to stop any convection within the sample. Measurements are taken after the sample has reached to the steady state (with zero heat gradient or constant heat over entire sample), this usually takes about 30 minutes and over.
Other steady-state methods [ edit ]
For good conductors of heat, Searle’s bar method can be used.[1] For poor conductors of heat, Lees’ disc method can be used.[2]
Time-domain methods [ edit ]
The transient techniques perform a measurement during the process of heating up. The advantage is that measurements can be made relatively quickly. Transient methods are usually carried out by needle probes.
Non-steady-state methods to measure the thermal conductivity do not require the signal to obtain a constant value. Instead, the signal is studied as a function of time. The advantage of these methods is that they can in general be performed more quickly, since there is no need to wait for a steady-state situation. The disadvantage is that the mathematical analysis of the data is generally more difficult.
Transient hot wire method [ edit ]
The transient hot wire method (THW) is a very popular, accurate and precise technique to measure the thermal conductivity of gases, liquids,[3] solids,[4] nanofluids[5] and refrigerants[6] in a wide temperature and pressure range. The technique is based on recording the transient temperature rise of a thin vertical metal wire with infinite length when a step voltage is applied to it. The wire is immersed in a fluid and can act both as an electrical heating element and a resistance thermometer. The transient hot wire method has advantage over the other thermal conductivity method since there is a fully developed theory and there is no calibration or single-point calibration. Furthermore because of the very small measuring time (1 s) there is no convection present in the measurements and only the thermal conductivity of the fluid is measured with very high accuracy.
The most of the THW sensors used in academia consist of two identical very thin wires with only difference in the length.[3] Sensors using a single wire,[7][8] are used both in academia and industry with the advantage over the two-wire sensors the ease of handling of the sensor and change of the wire.
An ASTM standard is published for the measurements of engine coolants using a single-transient hot wire method.[9]
Transient plane source method [ edit ]
TPS sensor, model Hot Disk 4922, spiral radius about 15 mm
Transient Plane Source Method, utilizing a plane sensor and a special mathematical model describing the heat conductivity, combined with electronics, enables the method to be used to measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a thermal conductivity range of at least 0.01-500 W/m/K (in accordance with ISO 22007-2) and can be used for measuring various kinds of materials, such as solids, liquid, paste and thin films etc. In 2008 it was approved as an ISO-standard for measuring thermal transport properties of polymers (November 2008). This TPS standard also covers the use of this method to test both isotropic and anisotropic materials.
The Transient Plane Source technique typically employs two samples halves, in-between which the sensor is sandwiched. Normally the samples should be homogeneous, but extended use of transient plane source testing of heterogeneous material is possible, with proper selection of sensor size to maximize sample penetration. This method can also be used in a single-sided configuration, with the introduction of a known insulation material used as sensor support.
The flat sensor consists of a continuous double spiral of electrically conducting nickel (Ni) metal, etched out of a thin foil. The nickel spiral is situated between two layers of thin polyimide film Kapton. The thin Kapton films provides electrical insulation and mechanical stability to the sensor. The sensor is placed between two halves of the sample to be measured. During the measurement a constant electrical effect passes through the conducting spiral, increasing the sensor temperature. The heat generated dissipates into the sample on both sides of the sensor, at a rate depending on the thermal transport properties of the material. By recording temperature vs. time response in the sensor, the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat capacity of the material can be calculated. For highly conducting materials, very large samples are needed (some litres of volume).
Modified transient plane source (MTPS) method [ edit ]
Modified Transient Plane Source Sensor
A variation of the above method is the Modified Transient Plane Source Method (MTPS) developed by Dr. Nancy Mathis. The device uses a one-sided, interfacial, heat reflectance sensor that applies a momentary, constant heat source to the sample. The difference between this method and traditional transient plane source technique described above is that the heating element is supported on a backing, which provides mechanical support, electrical insulation and thermal insulation. This modification provides a one-sided interfacial measurement in offering maximum flexibility in testing liquids, powders, pastes and solids.
Transient line source method [ edit ]
Series of needle probes used for transient line source measurements. Photo shows, from left to right, models TP02, TP08, a ballpoint for purposes of size comparison, TP03 and TP09
The physical model behind this method is the infinite line source with constant power per unit length. The temperature profile T ( t , r ) {\displaystyle T(t,r)} at a distance r {\displaystyle r} at time t {\displaystyle t} is as follows
T ( t , r ) = Q 4 π k E i ( r 2 4 a t ) {\displaystyle T(t,r)={\frac {Q}{4\pi k}}\mathrm {Ei} \left({\frac {r^{2}}{4at}}\right)}
where
When performing an experiment, one measures the temperature at a point at fixed distance, and follows that temperature in time. For large times, the exponential integral can be approximated by making use of the following relation
E i ( x ) = − γ − ln ( x ) + O ( x 2 ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ei} (x)=-\gamma -\ln(x)+O(x^{2})}
where
This leads to the following expression
T ( t , r ) = Q 4 π k { − γ − ln ( r 2 4 a ) + ln ( t ) } {\displaystyle T(t,r)={\frac {Q}{4\pi k}}\left\{-\gamma -\ln \left({\frac {r^{2}}{4a}}\right)+\ln(t)\right\}}
Note that the first two terms in the brackets on the RHS are constants. Thus if the probe temperature is plotted versus the natural logarithm of time, the thermal conductivity can be determined from the slope given knowledge of Q. Typically this means ignoring the first 60 to 120 seconds of data and measuring for 600 to 1200 seconds. Typically, this method is used for gases and liquids whose thermal conductivities are between 0.1 and 50 W/(mK). If the thermal conductivities are too high, the diagram often does not show a linearity, so that no evaluation is possible.[10]
Modified transient line source method [ edit ]
A variation on the Transient Line Source method is used for measuring the thermal conductivity of a large mass of the earth for Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP/GSHP) system design. This is generally called Ground Thermal Response Testing (TRT) by the GHP industry.[11][12][13] Understanding the ground conductivity and thermal capacity is essential to proper GHP design, and using TRT to measure these properties was first presented in 1983 (Mogensen). The now commonly used procedure, introduced by Eklöf and Gehlin in 1996 and now approved by ASHRAE involves inserting a pipe loop deep into the ground (in a well bore, filling the anulus of the bore with a grout substance of known thermal properties, heating the fluid in the pipe loop, and measuring the temperature drop in the loop from the inlet and return pipes in the bore. The ground thermal conductivity is estimated using the line source approximation method—plotting a straight line on the log of the thermal response measured. A very stable thermal source and pumping circuit are required for this procedure.
More advanced Ground TRT methods are currently under development. The DOE is now validating a new Advanced Thermal Conductivity test said to require half the time as the existing approach, while also eliminating the requirement for a stable thermal source.[14] This new technique is based on multi-dimensional model-based TRT data analysis.
Laser flash method [ edit ]
The laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a thin disc in the thickness direction. This method is based upon the measurement of the temperature rise at the rear face of the thin-disc specimen produced by a short energy pulse on the front face. With a reference sample specific heat can be achieved and with known density the thermal conductivity results as follows
k ( T ) = a ( T ) ⋅ c P ( T ) ⋅ ρ ( T ) {\displaystyle k(T)=a(T)\cdot c_{P}(T)\cdot \rho (T)}
where
It is suitable for a multiplicity of different materials over a broad temperature range (−120 °C to 2800 °C).[15]
Time-domain thermoreflectance method [ edit ]
Time-domain thermoreflectance is a method by which the thermal properties of a material can be measured, most importantly thermal conductivity. This method can be applied most notably to thin film materials, which have properties that vary greatly when compared to the same materials in bulk. The idea behind this technique is that once a material is heated up, the change in the reflectance of the surface can be utilized to derive the thermal properties. The change in reflectivity is measured with respect to time, and the data received can be matched to a model which contain coefficients that correspond to thermal properties.
DynTIM method [ edit ]
DynTIM is a bulk thermal conductivity measurement system. DynTIM works by imitating the environmental parameters of real thermal interface materials, using a power diode for a heater or temperature sensor element.[16] By having strong thermal insulation surrounding the diode, heat escapes only through an exposed cooling tab, which is used as the probe for the thermal interface material measurements. This method shares similarities with the ASTM D5470 standard, such as the measurement of the thermal resistance at different material thickness levels.[17] The system is designed to measure high thermal conductivity thermal interface materials. Its applicability for the measurement of insulators is more limited.
Frequency-domain methods [ edit ]
One popular technique for electro-thermal characterization of materials is the 3ω-method, in which a thin metal structure (generally a wire or a film) is deposited on the sample to function as a resistive heater and a resistance temperature detector (RTD). The heater is driven with AC current at frequency ω, which induces periodic joule heating at frequency 2ω due to the oscillation of the AC signal during a single period. There will be some delay between the heating of the sample and the temperature response which is dependent upon the thermal properties of the sensor/sample. This temperature response is measured by logging the amplitude and phase delay of the AC voltage signal from the heater across a range of frequencies (generally accomplished using a lock-in-amplifier). Note, the phase delay of the signal is the lag between the heating signal and the temperature response. The measured voltage will contain both the fundamental and third harmonic components (ω and 3ω respectively), because the Joule heating of the metal structure induces oscillations in its resistance with frequency 2ω due to the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of the metal heater/sensor as stated in the following equation:
V = I R = I 0 e i ω t ( R 0 + ∂ R ∂ T Δ T ) = I 0 e i ω t ( R 0 + C 0 e i 2 ω t ) {\displaystyle V=IR=I_{0}e^{i\omega t}\left(R_{0}+{\frac {\partial R}{\partial T}}\Delta T\right)=I_{0}e^{i\omega t}\left(R_{0}+C_{0}e^{i2\omega t}\right)}
where C 0 is constant. Thermal conductivity is determined by the linear slope of ΔT vs. log(ω) curve. The main advantages of the 3ω-method are minimization of radiation effects and easier acquisition of the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity than in the steady-state techniques. Although some expertise in thin film patterning and microlithography is required, this technique is considered as the best pseudo-contact method available.[18] (ch23)
Frequency-domain hot-wire method [ edit ]
The transient hot wire method can be combined with the 3ω-method to accurately measure the thermal conductivity of solid and molten compounds from room temperature up to 800 °C. In high temperature liquids, errors from convection and radiation make steady-state and time-domain thermal conductivity measurements vary widely;[19] this is evident in the previous measurements for molten nitrates.[20] By operating in the frequency-domain, the thermal conductivity of the liquid can be measured using a 25 μm diameter hot-wire while rejecting the influence of ambient temperature fluctuations, minimizing error from radiation, and minimizing errors from convection by keeping the probed volume below 1 μL.[21]
Freestanding sensor-based 3ω-method [ edit ]
The freestanding sensor-based 3ω technique[22][23] is proposed and developed as a candidate for the conventional 3ω method for thermophysical properties measurement. The method covers the determination of solids, powders and fluids from cryogenic temperatures to around 400 K.[24] For solid samples, the method is applicable to both bulks and tens of micrometers thick wafers/membranes,[25] dense or porous surfaces.[26] The thermal conductivity and thermal effusivity can be measured using selected sensors, respectively. Two basic forms are now available: the linear source freestanding sensor and the planar source freestanding sensor. The range of thermophysical properties can be covered by different forms of the technique, with the exception that the recommended thermal conductivity range where the highest precision can be attained is 0.01 to 150 W/m•K for the linear source freestanding sensor and 500 to 8000 J/m2•K•s0.5 for the planar source freestanding sensor.
Measuring devices [ edit ]
A thermal conductance tester, one of the instruments of gemology, determines if gems are genuine diamonds using diamond’s uniquely high thermal conductivity.
For an example, see Measuring Instrument of Heat Conductivity of ITP-MG4 “Zond” (Russia).[27]
Standards [ edit ]
EN 12667, “Thermal performance of building materials and products. Determination of thermal resistance by means of guarded hot plate and heat flow meter methods. Products of high and medium thermal resistance”, ISBN 0-580-36512-3.
ISO 8301, “Thermal insulation – Determination of steady-state thermal resistance and related properties – Heat flow meter apparatus” [1]
ISO 8497, “Thermal insulation – Determination of steady-state thermal transmission properties of thermal insulation for circular pipes”, ISBN 0-580-26907-8 [2]
ISBN 0-580-26907-8 [2] ISO 22007-2:2008 “Plastics – Determination of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity – Part 2: Transient plane heat source (hot disc) method” [3]
ISO 22007-4:2008 “Plastics – Determination of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity – Part 4: Laser flash method” [15]
IEEE Standard 442–1981, “IEEE guide for soil thermal resistivity measurements”, ISBN 0-7381-0794-8. See also soil thermal properties. [4] [28]
ISBN 0-7381-0794-8. See also soil thermal properties. [4] IEEE Standard 98-2002, “Standard for the Preparation of Test Procedures for the Thermal Evaluation of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials”, ISBN 0-7381-3277-2 [5] [29]
ISBN 0-7381-3277-2 [5] ASTM Standard C518 – 10, “Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus” [6]
ASTM Standard D5334-14, “Standard Test Method for Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Soil and Soft Rock by Thermal Needle Probe Procedure”[7]
ASTM Standard D5470-06, “Standard Test Method for Thermal Transmission Properties of Thermally Conductive Electrical Insulation Materials” [8]
ASTM Standard E1225-04, “Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity of Solids by Means of the Guarded-Comparative-Longitudinal Heat Flow Technique” [9]
ASTM Standard D5930-01, “Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity of Plastics by Means of a Transient Line-Source Technique” [10]
ASTM Standard D2717-95, “Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity of Liquids” [11]
References [ edit ]
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사람들이 주제에 대해 자주 검색하는 키워드 An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched
- An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical heater sandwiched
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