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How do film genres generally tend to originate and develop? Organically, as inspired by shifts in history, politics, or society. What similarities does the horror genre share with the science fiction genre?Where does the terminology and meaning of film genre originate? Film genres are largely based on early theories of literary-genre criticism. Much like poems, stories, and other literary works fall into various genres based on underlying characteristics and elements, so too do films.Genres form by conventions that change over time as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of old ones. Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions.

Contents

How do film genres generally tend to originate?

Where does the terminology and meaning of film genre originate? Film genres are largely based on early theories of literary-genre criticism. Much like poems, stories, and other literary works fall into various genres based on underlying characteristics and elements, so too do films.

How does genre develop?

Genres form by conventions that change over time as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of old ones. Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions.

How does genre evolve?

The notion of ‘genre’ has established itself as a key concept in many disciplines and fields as a means of describing social action and/or recurring patterns of form. Recent social and technological changes are driving the emergence of new genres, the evolution of traditional ones as well as variation within them.

Why do filmmakers make genre films?

Genre’s importance to finding your audience

Their job is to attach an audience to your film as quickly and cheaply as possible. Genre really helps with that. For example, The Godfather and Goodfellas were both gangster crime movies set in New York.

Where does the genre originate from?

Genre, as you might guess from the way it sounds, comes straight from French, a language based on Latin. It’s closely related to genus, a word you may have encountered in biology class.

When was the genre first used and developed?

c. 1300, “kind, sort, class, a class or kind of persons or things sharing certain traits,” from Old French gendre, genre “kind, species; character; gender” (12c., Modern French. Also used in Latin to translate Aristotle’s Greek grammatical term genos.

Why do film genres change over time?

2.  One main reason why genre is changing over time is that there are now changes in audiences’ expectations. According to research contemporary audiences are much more sophisticated viewers than those in previous years who first saw moving pictures or television programmes.

Why is genre important in film?

Genre is important for audiences because it allows them to know what kind of film they are going to see and what they can expect when going to see a film. For example if the genre is horror, then the audience know they are going to see a scary film and they should expect to feel scared.

How do you identify film genres?

An equation for remembering the genre is: Story (Action) + Plot + Character + Setting = Genre. This becomes an easy way to remember the elements of a genre. The above elements of story, plot, setting, and character equal a specific category of movie.

Why does genre exist?

Genres are useful.

Writers and readers both use genres because of the cognitive and social work they accomplish. For writers, using the patterns of a genre accepted by readers for accomplishing their purposes allows them to establish a working relationship with readers.

What is a genre theory in film?

Genre Theory involves classifying a film into a category that contains other films that have similar aspects. These could be similar narratives, characters, filming techniques, or other formal features. The word genre comes from the French (and originally Latin) word for ‘kind’ or ‘class’ ”.

What is the meaning of genre in movies?

Film genres are categories that define a movie based on its narrative elements. Each genre is unique in the types of stories they tell. Genres have changed and evolved over time, creating several subgenres that further define the filmmaking styles.

Why is genre important in media?

Genre, which comes from the French word for ‘type’, is important for both consumers and media producers. Consumers can make choices about media texts they wish to consume and media producers can create a media text for a specific audience.

How does genre help the audience?

Genre is useful for audiences as it enables them to differentiate between the styles and types of narrative, allowing them to decide on what they enjoy. Producers benefit from genre as they can see what is most successful at the current time, and, therefore, make more of the same to capitalise on profit.

Why is it important to consider first the film genre before anything else?

Not knowing the film genre can be confusing

Without understanding what kind of story we are seeing, the audience will feel a subconscious questioning of what they are supposed to be watching. “How am I supposed to react?” is one of the most common confusions an audience will feel if they don’t know the genre.

How do you identify film genres?

Why is genre important in film?

What is a film genre quizlet?

A category composed of films with similar distinct properties and characteristics (myths, conventions, and iconography)

How are movies categorized?

Drawing heavily from the theories of literary-genre criticism, film genres are usually delineated by “conventions, iconography, settings, narratives, characters and actors.” One can also classify films by the tone, theme/topic, mood, format, target audience, or budget.

Film genres

How Do Film Genres Generally Tend to Originate and Develop?

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Elements of Film Genres

The Origination of Film Genres

How Film Genres Develop

A Mix of Factors

How Do Film Genres Generally Tend to Originate and Develop?

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Contents

Visual arts[edit]

Literature[edit]

Film[edit]

Music[edit]

Popular culture and other media[edit]

Linguistics[edit]

Rhetoric[edit]

History[edit]

Audiences[edit]

Subgenre[edit]

Microgenre[edit]

How Do Film Genres Generally Tend to Originate and Develop?

How Do Film Genres Generally Tend to Originate and Develop?

Film genres represent key classifications or categories that are based largely on theories of criticism, but exactly how do film genres generally tend to originate and develop? This is a common question that has many potential answers. Looking at genre theory, and the utilization of film genres throughout the history of film, one can make several assumptions as to the origination and development of these simple, yet incredibly complex, characterizations of film which are largely based on style, form, or content.

Elements of Film Genres

Categorizing films and classifying them into a particular genre requires an in depth look at the various elements of film genre which include a review of character, story, plot and setting. Of course, a lot more goes into defining a film’s genre than a top level look at the characters or its setting or plot.

In fact, the genre is largely delineated by the combination of all of these elements as the story or action taking place in the film, the overall plot of the film, the main character of the film and the setting come together to form the genre.

The Origination of Film Genres

So how do film genres generally tend to originate and develop? To answer this question requires a look back at how film genres come into the spotlight in the first place. Film genres represent the style or theme of a film that is based on the narrative elements and aesthetics listed previously but they also have a lot to do with the underlying emotional response to a film.

But how did film genres begin? Where does the terminology and meaning of film genre originate?

Film genres are largely based on early theories of literary-genre criticism. Much like poems, stories, and other literary works fall into various genres based on underlying characteristics and elements, so too do films. The genre theory or concept originates from similar concepts and central elements of literature and theatre narration.

How Film Genres Develop

Arguments exist on a variety of potential conclusions as to how film genres developed and how the evolutionary history of film genre theory has developed over time. Some believe the genres are the result of prototypical categories.

For example, these arguments state that the word genre is used to classify and describe film and literary works but it’s also a marketing label that is sometimes used to drive viewer interest.

These individuals state that film genre is derived from the original storytelling that took place via oral, written, or theatrical performance in which many films have similar central characteristics or elements that were copied from early literature and storytelling.

A Mix of Factors

But when seeking to answer the question, “How do film genres generally tend to originate and develop?” it’s important to also consider that genre can be developed or defined by a mix of underlying factors. In addition to the narrative components of plot, setting, character and conflict, film genres are equally defined by underlying common icons, structure, techniques, stages in time or eras, and audience groups.

With that, one may argue that film genres are developed both pre-production and post-production, as they may be defined by the story that is prepared in pre-production script writing or the genre may come about as a result of post-production events or elements respective of the film.

Many things contribute to a genre

So, when looking at the question, how do film genres generally tend to originate and develop, it’s important to recognize that film genres originate from the historical literary genres that many films copy or closely resemble, and they develop both in pre-production with the script writing as well as in post-production with various other elements or characteristics including emotional reaction by the audient, underlying iconography, form, and various other elements.

In other words…it’s complicated.

Wikipedia

Category of creative works based on stylistic and/or thematic criteria

Genre (from French genre ‘kind, sort’) is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time.[1] In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, whether written or spoken, audio or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria, yet genres can be aesthetic, rhetorical, communicative, or functional. Genres form by conventions that change over time as cultures invent new genres and discontinue the use of old ones.[2] Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand-alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed-upon or socially inferred conventions. Some genres may have rigid, strictly adhered-to guidelines, while others may show great flexibility.

Genre began[clarification needed] as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature, as set out in Aristotle’s Poetics.[3] For Aristotle, poetry (odes, epics, etc.), prose, and performance each had specific design features that supported appropriate content of each genre. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, for example, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best.

Genres proliferate and develop beyond Aristotle’s classifications in response to changes in audiences and creators.[4] Genre has become a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictability through artistic expression. Given that art is often a response to a social state, in that people write, paint, sing, dance, and otherwise produce art about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings.

Musician Ezra LaFleur argues that discussion of genre should draw from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s idea of family resemblance.[5] Genres are helpful labels for communicating but do not necessarily have a single attribute that is the essence of the genre.

Visual arts [ edit ]
The term genre is much used in the history and criticism of visual art, but in art history has meanings that overlap rather confusingly. Genre painting is a term for paintings where the main subject features human figures to whom no specific identity attaches – in other words, figures are not portraits, characters from a story, or allegorical personifications. These are distinguished from staffage: incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting. Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings.

The concept of the “hierarchy of genres” was a powerful one in artistic theory, especially between the 17th and 19th centuries. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a central role in academic art. The genres in hierarchical order are:

Literature [ edit ]
A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young adult, or children’s. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups.

The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy,[6] comedy, novel, and short story. They can all be in the genres prose or poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre such as satire might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed. In popular fiction, which is especially divided by genres, genre fiction is the more usual term.

In literature, genre has been known as an intangible taxonomy. This taxonomy implies a concept of containment or that an idea will be stable forever. The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette, a French literary theorist and author of The Architext, describes Plato as creating three Imitational genres: dramatic dialogue, pure narrative, and epic (a mixture of dialogue and narrative). Lyric poetry, the fourth and final type of Greek literature, was excluded by Plato as a non-mimetic mode. Aristotle later revised Plato’s system by eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode and distinguishing by two additional criteria: the object to be imitated, as objects could be either superior or inferior, and the medium of presentation such as words, gestures or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium dialogue, epic (superior-mixed narrative), comedy (inferior-dramatic dialogue), and parody (inferior-mixed narrative). Genette continues by explaining the later integration of lyric poetry into the classical system during the romantic period, replacing the now removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third leg of a new tripartite system: lyrical, epical, and dramatic dialogue. This system, which came to “dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism (and therefore well beyond)…” (38), has seen numerous attempts at expansion or revision. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing scope and complexity.

Genette reflects upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: “its structure is somewhat superior to…those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse” (74). Taxonomy allows for a structured classification system of genre, as opposed to a more contemporary rhetorical model of genre.

Film [ edit ]
The basic genres of film can be regarded as drama, in the feature film and most cartoons, and documentary. Most dramatic feature films, especially from Hollywood fall fairly comfortably into one of a long list of film genres such as the Western, war film, horror film, romantic comedy film, musical, crime film, and many others. Many of these genres have a number of subgenres, for example by setting or subject, or a distinctive national style, for example in the Indian Bollywood musical.

Music [ edit ]
A music genre is a conventional category that identifies pieces of music as belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions.[7] It is to be distinguished from musical form and musical style, although in practice these terms are sometimes used interchangeably.[citation needed] There are numerous genres in Western classical music and popular music, as well as musical theatre and the music of non-Western cultures. The term is now perhaps over-used to describe relatively small differences in musical style in modern rock music, that also may reflect sociological differences in their audiences.[citation needed] Timothy Laurie suggests that in the context of rock and pop music studies, the “appeal of genre criticism is that it makes narratives out of musical worlds that often seem to lack them”.[8]
Music can be divided into different genres in several ways. The artistic nature of music means that these classifications are often arbitrary and controversial, and some genres may overlap. There are several academic approaches to genres. In his book Form in Tonal Music, Douglass M. Green lists madrigal, motet, canzona, ricercar, and dance as examples of genres from the Renaissance period. According to Green, “Beethoven’s Op. 61 and Mendelssohn’s Op. 64 are identical in genre – both are violin concertos – but different in form. However, Mozart’s Rondo for Piano, K. 511, and the Agnus Dei from his Mass, K. 317 are quite different in genre but happen to be similar in form.”[9] Some, like Peter van der Merwe, treat the terms genre and style as the same, saying that genre should be defined as pieces of music that share a certain style or “basic musical language”.[10]
Others, such as Allan F. Moore, state that genre and style are two separate terms, and that secondary characteristics such as subject matter can also differentiate between genres.[11] A music genre or subgenre may be defined by the musical techniques, the styles, the context, and content and spirit of the themes. Geographical origin is sometimes used to identify a music genre, though a single geographical category will often include a wide variety of subgenres.

Several music scholars have criticised the priority accorded to genre-based communities and listening practices. For example, Laurie argues that “music genres do not belong to isolated, self-sufficient communities. People constantly move between environments where diverse forms of music are heard, advertised and accessorised with distinctive iconographies, narratives and celebrity identities that also touch on non-musical worlds.”[8]
Popular culture and other media [ edit ]
The concept of genre is often applied, sometimes rather loosely, to other media with an artistic element, such as video game genres. Genre, and numerous minutely divided subgenres, affect popular culture very significantly, not least as they are used to classify it for publicity purposes. The vastly increased output of popular culture in the age of electronic media encourages dividing cultural products by genre to simplify the search for products by consumers, a trend the Internet has only intensified.

Linguistics [ edit ]
In philosophy of language, genre figures prominently in the works of philosopher and literary scholar Mikhail Bakhtin. Bakhtin’s basic observations were of “speech genres” (the idea of heteroglossia), modes of speaking or writing that people learn to mimic, weave together, and manipulate (such as “formal letter” and “grocery list”, or “university lecture” and “personal anecdote”). In this sense, genres are socially specified: recognized and defined (often informally) by a particular culture or community. The work of Georg Lukács also touches on the nature of literary genres, appearing separately but around the same time (1920s–1930s) as Bakhtin. Norman Fairclough has a similar concept of genre that emphasizes the social context of the text: Genres are “different ways of (inter)acting discoursally” (Fairclough, 2003: 26).

A text’s genre may be determined by its:

Linguistic function. Formal traits. Textual organization. Relation of communicative situation to formal and organizational traits of the text (Charaudeau and Maingueneau, 2002:278–280).

Rhetoric [ edit ]
In the field of rhetoric, genre theorists usually understand genres as types of actions rather than types or forms of texts.[12] On this perspective, texts are channels through which genres are enacted. Carolyn Miller’s[13] work has been especially important for this perspective. Drawing on Lloyd Bitzer’s concept of rhetorical situation,[14] Miller reasons that recurring rhetorical problems tend to elicit recurring responses; drawing on Alfred Schütz,[15] she reasons that these recurring responses become “typified” – that is, socially constructed as recognizable types. Miller argues that these “typified rhetorical actions” (p. 151) are properly understood as genres.

Building off of Miller, Charles Bazerman and Clay Spinuzzi have argued that genres understood as actions derive their meaning from other genres – that is, other actions. Bazerman therefore proposes that we analyze genres in terms of “genre systems”,[16] while Spinuzzi prefers the closely related concept of “genre ecologies”.[17]
This tradition has had implications for the teaching of writing in American colleges and universities. Combining rhetorical genre theory with activity theory, David Russell has proposed that standard English composition courses are ill-suited to teach the genres that students will write in other contexts across the university and beyond.[18] Elizabeth Wardle contends that standard composition courses do teach genres, but that these are inauthentic “mutt genres” that are often of little use outside of composition courses.[19]
History [ edit ]
This concept of genre originated from the classification systems created by Plato. Plato divided literature into the three classic genres accepted in Ancient Greece: poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry is further subdivided into epic, lyric, and drama. The divisions are recognized as being set by Aristotle and Plato; however, they were not the only ones. Many genre theorists added to these accepted forms of poetry.

Classical and Romance genre theory [ edit ]
The earliest recorded systems of genre in Western history can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle. Gérard Genette explains his interpretation of the history of genre in “The Architext”. He described Plato as the creator of three imitational, mimetic genres distinguished by mode of imitation rather than content. These three imitational genres include dramatic dialogue, the drama; pure narrative, the dithyramb; and a mixture of the two, the epic. Plato excluded lyric poetry as a non-mimetic, imitational mode. Genette further discussed how Aristotle revised Plato’s system by first eliminating the pure narrative as a viable mode. He then uses two additional criteria to distinguish the system. The first of the criteria is the object to be imitated, whether superior or inferior. The second criterion is the medium of presentation: words, gestures, or verse. Essentially, the three categories of mode, object, and medium can be visualized along an XYZ axis. Excluding the criteria of medium, Aristotle’s system distinguished four types of classical genres: tragedy, epic, comedy, and parody.

Genette explained the integration of lyric poetry into the classical system by replacing the removed pure narrative mode. Lyric poetry, once considered non-mimetic, was deemed to imitate feelings, becoming the third “Architext”, a term coined by Gennette, of a new long-enduring tripartite system: lyrical; epical, the mixed narrative; and dramatic, the dialogue. This new system that came to “dominate all the literary theory of German romanticism” (Genette 38) has seen numerous attempts at expansion and revision. Such attempts include Friedrich Schlegel’s triad of subjective form, the lyric; objective form, the dramatic; and subjective-objective form, the epic. However, more ambitious efforts to expand the tripartite system resulted in new taxonomic systems of increasing complexity. Gennette reflected upon these various systems, comparing them to the original tripartite arrangement: “its structure is somewhat superior to most of those that have come after, fundamentally flawed as they are by their inclusive and hierarchical taxonomy, which each time immediately brings the whole game to a standstill and produces an impasse”.

Audiences [ edit ]
Although genres are not always precisely definable, genre considerations are one of the most important factors in determining what a person will see or read. The classification properties of genre can attract or repel potential users depending on the individual’s understanding of a genre.

Genre creates an expectation in that expectation is met or not. Many genres have built-in audiences and corresponding publications that support them, such as magazines and websites. Inversely, audiences may call out for change in an antecedent genre and create an entirely new genre.

The term may be used in categorizing web pages, like “news page” and “fan page”, with both very different layout, audience, and intention (Rosso, 2008). Some search engines like Vivísimo try to group found web pages into automated categories in an attempt to show various genres the search hits might fit.

Subgenre [ edit ]
A subgenre is a subordinate within a genre.[20][21] Two stories being the same genre can still sometimes differ in subgenre. For example, if a fantasy story has darker and more frightening elements of fantasy, it would belong in the subgenre of dark fantasy; whereas another fantasy story that features magic swords and wizards would belong to the subgenre of sword and sorcery.

Microgenre [ edit ]
A microgenre is a highly specialized, narrow classification of a cultural practice. The term has come into usage in the 21st century, and most commonly refers to music.[22] It is also associated with the hyper-specific categories used in recommendations for television shows and movies on digital streaming platforms such as Netflix, and is sometimes used more broadly by scholars analyzing niche forms in other periods and other media.[23]
See also [ edit ]
References [ edit ]
Citations [ edit ]
Sources [ edit ]
Aristotle (2000). Poetics . Translated by Butcher, S. H. Cambridge, MA: The Internet Classics Archive.

Bakhtin, Mikhail M. (1983). “Epic and Novel”. In Holquist, Michael (ed.). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7 .

Charaudeau, P.; Maingueneau, D. and Adam, J. Dictionnaire d’analyse du discours . Seuil, 2002.

. Seuil, 2002. Devitt, Amy J. “A Theory of Genre”. Writing Genres . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. 1–32.

. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004. 1–32. Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research . Routledge, 2003.

. Routledge, 2003. Genette, Gérard. The Architext: An Introduction . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. [1979]
. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. [1979] Jamieson, Kathleen M. “Antecedent Genre as Rhetorical Constraint”. Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 (1975): 406–415.

61 (1975): 406–415. Killoran, John B. “The Gnome In The Front Yard and Other Public Figurations: Genres of Self-Presentation on Personal Home Pages”. Biography 26.1 (2003): 66–83.

LaCapra, Dominick. “History and Genre: Comment”. New Literary History 17.2 (1986): 219–221.

17.2 (1986): 219–221. Miller, Carolyn. “Genre as Social Action”. Quarterly Journal of Speech . 70 (1984): 151–67.

. 70 (1984): 151–67. Rosso, Mark. “User-based Identification of Web Genres”. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 59 (2008): 1053–1072.

59 (2008): 1053–1072. Todorov, Tzvetan. “The Origins of Genre”. New Literary History 8.1 (1976): 159-170.

Further reading [ edit ]

Evolution in Genre

JOHN A. BATEMAN, PAOLA EVANGELISTI ALLORI & VIJAY K. BHATIA

Evolution in Genre: Emergence, Variation, Multimodality

1.Introduction

The notion of ‘genre’ has long established itself as a key concept in many disciplines and fields. And, as a key concept, it provides various methods of access to the phenomena it is used to describe. Current definitions and applications of genre show a collection of family resemblances that indicate well the kind of work that genre is called upon to perform. First, there is the strong relation to social action and kinds of social organisation that have been strongly promoted for genre (e.g., Miller 1984; Bhatia 1993). Second, there is the use of genre to refer to reoccurring patterns of form in any artefacts or behaviours being explored: members of any particular genre are commonly taken to exhibit certain regularities in terms of the kinds of communicative work that is done, the forms of expression that work takes on, and the particular sequences of communicative acts that required to realise the genre (Swales 1990; Bhatia 1993; Martin / Rose 2008; Lemke 2005). The importance of relating sequences of communicative actions to particular academic, professional and social contexts with the expectation that specific communicative goals and purposes will be achieved within these contexts is now uncontroversial. Using genre to organise research and empirical study so that the interplay between specific communicative situations and expressive forms can guide investigation has successfully demonstrated its utility time and again. Academic, professional and social practices can be brought into sharper relief, educational materials can be tailored more effectively to empower language users in a broader range of such contexts, and similarities ← 9 | 10 → and differences between communicative practices can be mapped out beneficially and related to social change.

Genre is thus essentially historically and socially situated. And this in turn means that the aspect of change must be considered as an important component of any genre-based research. As social practices develop and change, communicative demands follow suit and the genres of communicative behaviour appropriate for meeting those demands grow (or shrink) similarly. It is then of considerable importance to consider, both theoretically and practically in the course of particular descriptions, how the notion of genre itself meets the challenges that accounting adequately for change and development raise. Particularly nowadays, we are witnessing an explosion of communicative practices going far beyond previously established language uses. Moreover, communication today draws on an unprecedented range of modalities, combining written language, pictures, spoken language, moving images, diagrams with considerable flexibility; and, at the same time, the media of distribution of communicative artefacts and behaviours is expanding, with online media coming to play a role in all areas of communication and interpersonal interaction.

It is not necessarily the case that prior approaches to genre are all equally prepared for the task of incorporating and following change – indeed, one recurrent criticism of genre approaches is the presupposition that they consider generic structuring and language use as ‘static’ and overly conventionalised. It then becomes an increasingly urgent task to consider the question of how notions of genre cope when the communicative landscape is itself undergoing such fundamental changes. Moreover, the emergence of new media and new communicative requirements does not proceed in a vacuum. Typically new communicative situations build on and re-use established patterns of communication – this means that previously established genres are re-purposed, re-designed and re-deployed. To study and understand such developmental trajectories, therefore, it is again vital to see them in terms of genre. Only then can novelty be placed in appropriate contexts so that we can see how novelty functions by drawing on existing genre repertoires of their communities of users. But we also need to consider just how genres morph and develop in the process of these various kinds of interdiscursive appropriation (Bhatia 2010). ← 10 | 11 →

The contributions collected in this volume are all motivated as responses to these twin challenges of new communicative situations and the development and continuation of effective communication by re-deploying existing genres, often creating mixed and embedded genres (Bhatia 2004). We see in each case attention being paid to specific communicative tasks, in various communicative media, and characterisations of these situations in terms of the genres that are being mobilised. In some cases, we find that new genres need to be proposed; in other cases, we see that existing genres are finding new homes or opportunities for use; and in other cases still, we see that definitions of genre itself have to be re-pointed and re-focused to continue to provide effective access to, and organisation of, communicative practices. In short, the volume returns to the basic question of just what is genre? What can the theoretical construct of genre be used for? We then also need to address questions of method in order to deal with new situations of use: how can we find out about genre? And, in response to such new situations: how are genres changing and why?

This volume’s responses to these questions are organised into three broad sections: the first concerned with emergent genres, the second with genre variability and the third with genre and multimodality. There are also many points of cross-connection across the sections, both methodologically and in terms of the kinds of material examined and the media in which communication takes place. We characterise briefly each major section in turn, setting out the particular questions and kinds of communication targeted in each contribution.

In the first section, dealing with emergent genres and interaction between genres, several contributions focus specifically on communicative and genre responses to new societal pressures, demands and contexts. New genres can be seen to be emerging from these configurations and so the description and documentation of both the corresponding social practices and their genres must be undertaken. The volume thus opens with a contribution by VIJAY K. BHATIA which specifically opens up the discussion by considering three example contexts of use in which distinct cultural activities, and their accompanying communicative practices, are explicitly being made to interact, engaging with and transforming one another. In each area of corporate disclosure, international commercial arbitration, and classified ← 11 | 12 → advertising, Bhatia shows how a particular interdiscursive space is brought into being within which the interacting professionals involved redraw genre boundaries and relations, shaping communicative practices to their needs. Within such spaces, established professional practices can enlist and colonise other such practices, as when, for example, commercial arbitration (and its communicative genres) becomes almost indistinguishable from litigation, or product or service reviews come to embed advertisements or other ‘advertorials’. To characterise these changes and developments, Bhatia takes his previous (2010) proposals for an objective critical genre analysis further and sets out to discuss how the concepts of intertextuality and interdiscursivity should be systematically distinguished from one another, thus providing stronger theoretical tools for tracking change and evolution in genres and their relationships to professional practice. The remaining contributions of this section address a range of new cultural, professional and communicative demands. The contribution of PAOLA CATENACCIO addresses, for example, the particular case of Company Social Responsibility Reports, an emergent genre by which companies document how well they have met and furthered environmental issues, while the contribution of CINZIA GIGLIONI addresses how the established genre of annual company reports has come under pressure in times of financial difficulties to respond to stakeholders more effectively, making the report genre overlap in significant ways with that of apologies. A further genre movement is then discussed by STEFANIA M. MACI in the very different context of submitted abstracts for conference posters in the medical domain; here again we find aspects of existing genres, that of reports, being made to do service in a new context, leading to further emergent genre organisations. To address this shift in function, Maci adopts a combination of genre theory and critical discourse analysis. All of the contributions in this section can therefore be seen as addressing different facets of emergence, both of situations and of corresponding genres, and their relationship to changes in society and professional practice.

In the second section, addressing genre variability, the contributions concern the further range of changes being brought about by the adoption of differing and diverse media of distribution for genres. This leads to variation on generic organisational patterns as the af ← 12 | 13 → fordances and capabilities of diverse media impact on the kind of communicative work that can be done. Here the volume discusses a broad variety of media-induced or media-accompanying genre variations. This itself raises quite fundamental issues for the description and identification of genre in the face of variation. The contributions of this section can all therefore be seen to relate to the challenges of ‘media translation’, where communicative tasks are taken on employing new media or similar communicative tasks have to be achieved across different media. MICHELA GIORDANO, for example, considers what is changed in legal trial proceedings in the process of moving from the actually performed legal situation to the official, and legally binding, written reports of that situation. This is a particularly marked case of distributions of work across spoken and written media as well as showing several distinctive features of translation in general, such as explicitation when non-verbally communicated information has to be fixed in the written record. Giordano considers three trials widely distributed in time, treating each in terms of the properties and features they exhibit as members of their genre. GILLIAN MANSFIELD then takes on a further kind of translation, that of communicating humour in TV sitcoms via subtitles for the hard of hearing. Here again, there is a balance to be achieved between the capabilities of the medium employed and the generic properties of the communication unfolding. In contrast, CARMEN SANCHO GUINDA addresses the quite different task of describing visual graphs and diagrams in verbal form: this activity is now occurring as a standard component in many areas of education as preparation for professional work where both verbal and visual media are employed for meaning-making. Guinda’s results show clearly that many difficulties exhibited by learners can be characterised as an adoption of inappropriate genres for their textual production: the students treat the task as information-transfer plus components for generating reader interest, rather than applying the specific genre features expected by the communities into which they are being socialised. Paying attention to genre explicitly during the teaching process and the genres expected by particular communities can therefore here, as in many other cases, directly improve performance. The last two contributions in this section on variability then move on to the new media of the web and online interaction. FRANCA POPPI addresses ← 13 | 14 → the vexed issue of whether email should be considered a genre or not by examining business communication. Her corpus of professionally produced business communication shows clearly that email has moved away from a style, often informal and related to spoken genres, to become a medium in which a variety of genres, including formal, professional business communication can be distributed. And MAURIZIO GOTTI and LARISSA D’ANGELO consider the changes and adaptations that become necessary when dispute mediation dialogues are moved from face-to-face situations to the electronic chat-like, online medium of Online Dispute Resolution (ODR). Here the medium itself enforces changes to the genre in order to preserve its communicative effectiveness, bringing about a particularly clear case of genre variation under medial pressures.

The third and final area addressed in the volume is then devoted to the further logical stage of new medial possibilities, in which new genres, new hybrids and blends arise that are driven both by new communicative and social requirements and the possibilities offered by new media. Here issues of multimodality and interactivity come to the fore, raising again new challenges for the notion of genre. Thus the first contribution in this section, that of JOHN BATEMAN, attempts to characterise and distinguish notions of genre and of medium more finely so that empirical analysis can focus precisely on just what features may be attributable to genre considerations and which arise more from properties of the medium employed. The need to distinguish between genre and medium is particularly strong in multimodal contexts because of the great diversity of communicative techniques commonly co-deployed in any multimodal communicative artefact. Focusing attention is then crucial for effective methodologies and for finding generalisations and tracking patterns of change. CARMEN D. MAIER first takes up multimodality and genre in a different context: that of multimedia kits presented to conference attendees. By means of a variety of techniques, including interviews, Maier explores how genres presented together can be re-purposed and, in doing so, how they mutually re-define one another in a manner reminiscent of the combinations and linkages found in hypertext. SANDRA PETRONI then addresses more directly the new possibilities raised by online, cooperatively constructed wikis, where particular traversals through the linking possibil ← 14 | 15 → ities offered by wiki hypertexts can themselves be investigated as constituting new forms of genre. LUISA CAIAZZO explores a further emergent web-based genre, the ‘About us’ page of university websites. A corpus-based analysis of the multimodal features deployed within a selection of such pages shows again how new communicative work is being performed by combining established generic forms with new requirements: a clear relationship of similarity is established here, for example, between these webpages and advertisements. Finally, CHIARA DEGANO offers a contrastive analysis of the communicative work possible with electoral posters and that possible (and required) in the TV electoral debates in Britain. The electoral debate, familiar from the United States, is a new addition to British political media forms and Degano succeeds in bringing out by detailed analysis how the move from monologic (but multimodal) information presentation in posters to the dialogic (and performed) information presentation on TV also shifts the range of genres that may be mobilised in the service of presenting the positions of political parties.

The methods employed in the contributions in all three areas thus span a diverse range of possibilities. Many draw on detailed corpus analysis of the lexico-grammatical features employed in the communicative artefacts addressed; several extend traditional corpus analysis to include non-linguistic or extra-linguistic features involved in multimodal communication in different media. However all the contributions draw on genre as a way of framing their general methodological access to the questions under consideration. Connections with social theories are discussed, as well as the important notion of families or groups of genres co-existing within broader constellations, such as described in terms of genre colonies by Bhatia. Genres are used to define finer-grained units of analysis, such as discourse moves, which can then be examined in detail for their linguistic and non-linguistic realisations and forms of expression across related genres and within the ‘same’ genre when subjected to differing social or medial constraints or possibilities. In all cases, we see how genre continues to function as an effective tool for following communication as its contexts of use and social functions evolve. ← 15 | 16 →

References

Bateman, John A. 2008. Multimodality and Genre: a Foundation for the Systematic Analysis of Multimodal Documents. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Bhatia, Vijay K. 1993. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. Harlow, UK: Longman.

Bhatia, Vijay K. 2004. Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View. London: Continuum.

Bhatia, Vijay K. 2010. Interdiscursivity in Professional Communication. Discourse and Communication. 21/1, 32–50.

Lemke, Jay L. 2005. Multimedia Genre and Traversals. Folia Linguistica. XXXIX(1–2), 45–56.

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