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Naval Sergeant short crossword help

Rank Word Note 94% YEO Naval Corporal, Short Term 7% YEOMAN Naval Corporal 6% NIT Corporal 6% OPPRESS Corporal Upset About Media Abuse 6% MASTERATARMS Naval Chief Petty Officer 6% BOSN Naval Officer, Short Term 5% COP Constable 5% EXCISEMAN Duty Officer 5% TREASURER Treasurer Officer 5% USS Naval Letters 5% ADMIRAL Naval Officer 5% NUMBERONE Naval Officer 5% Ensign Naval Officer 5% BOSUN Sergeant 5% EXEC Naval Officer 5% FLEETADMIRAL Naval Officer 5% QUARTERMASTER Sergeant 5% BOATSWAINSMATE Sergeant 5% MATE Sergeant. 5% COMMANDER Naval Officer.

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Before becoming a student of the dark side, Darth Vader was Anakin Skywalker, a kind-hearted Jedi and hero of the clone wars. While considered one of the most powerful Jedi in the galaxy, Anakin had broken the Order’s code by secretly marrying Senator Padmé Amidala. As he began to suffer visions that Padmé would die in childbirth, Anakin sought a way to prevent that fate. Supreme Chancellor Palpatine, a mentor to the young Jedi, claimed that the dark side was a pathway to this ability: he could use Sith power to prevent humans from dying. At the same time, the Chancellor revealed that he himself was a Sith Lord, Darth Sidious, and would train Anakin. Confused and contradictory, Anakin finally succumbed to the temptations of Sidious. Renamed Darth Vader, he became an agent of evil.

Sidious took over the mantle of Emperor and Vader helped the Empire destroy the Jedi Order; Without mercy, Anakin led a legion of clones into the Jedi Temple and personally slew both fully trained Jedi and young novices. On the lava planet of Mustafar, where he was sent to assassinate Separatist leaders, Vader battled his former master and friend Obi-Wan Kenobi. Anakin fought with aggressive ferocity, ignoring Obi-Wan’s pleas to come to his senses. Ultimately, the Jedi Master defeated the new Sith. Badly injured, Vader was burned to death on the banks of a lava flow, filled with anger and hatred. Found by the Emperor, he was clad in a frightening black armor that kept him alive and given mechanical lungs that let out an ominous sound of breathing with every step. Anakin Skywalker was no more.

Fictional character in the Star Wars franchise

Fictional Character

Darth Vader is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. The character is the central antagonist of the original trilogy and, as Anakin Skywalker, one of the main protagonists of the entire prequel trilogy. Star Wars creator George Lucas has collectively referred to the first six episodic films in the franchise as “the tragedy of Darth Vader.”[2] He has gone on to become one of the most well-known villains in popular culture and has been ranked among the greatest villains and fictional characters of all time.[3][4]

Originally a slave on Tatooine, Anakin Skywalker is a Jedi prophesied to bring balance to the Force. He is lured to the dark side of the Force by Chancellor Sheev Palpatine/Darth Sidious and becomes a Sith Lord, taking the title Darth Vader. After a lightsaber fight with his former mentor Obi-Wan Kenobi on Mustafar, in which he is badly injured, Vader is transformed into a cyborg. He then serves the Galactic Empire as its Supreme Executor for over two decades. Vader eventually redeems himself by rescuing his son Luke Skywalker and killing Palpatine, sacrificing his own life in the process. He is also the secret husband of Padmé Amidala, Princess Leia’s biological father, and the grandfather of Kylo Ren (Ben Solo). In the non-canon Star Wars Legends continuity, he is also the grandfather of Ben Skywalker, his namesake Anakin Solo, Jaina Solo, and Darth Caedus (Jacen Solo), and the great-grandfather of Allana Solo.

The character has been portrayed by numerous actors: David Prowse portrayed Vader physically, while James Earl Jones has voiced him in all the films and some television shows, and Sebastian Shaw portrayed the unmasked Anakin in Return of the Jedi as well as the character’s spirit in the original release of that film . [e] Jake Lloyd played Anakin Skywalker as a child in The Phantom Menace, the first film of the prequel trilogy, while Hayden Christensen played him as a young adult in the following two films after the 2004 releases of Return of the Jedi and Obi-Wan Kenobi. [H]

In addition to the first six Star Wars films, the character appears in the anthology film Rogue One. He also appears in television series (most notably The Clone Wars) and numerous iterations of the Star Wars Expanded Universe, including video games, novels, and comics. Due to Vader’s popularity, various merchandise of the character such as action figures and replicas of his lightsaber have been produced.

creation and development

Surname

According to Star Wars creator George Lucas, he experimented with different naming combinations for the character based on the phrase “Dark Water”. Then “he added a lot of surnames, Vaders and Wilsons and Smiths, and … just came up with the combination of Darth and Vader”. After the publication of The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Lucas explained that the name Vader is based on the German/Dutch-language word Vater or vader, meaning “father”, making the name representative of a “dark father”.[6] Other words that may have inspired the name include “death” and “intruder”[7] and the name of one of Lucas’s high school seniors, Gary Vader.[8][9]

Since no other character titled “Darth” was introduced until the release of The Phantom Menace (1999), some viewers interpreted it as the character’s first name, partly because Obi-Wan Kenobi addressed him as “Darth” in the original film. [10] [w] The nickname is given to Anakin in Revenge of the Sith (2005) when he turns to the dark side of the Force.

Director Ken Annakin’s films Swiss Family Robinson and Battle of the Bulge influenced the original trilogy,[11] leading some to believe Anakin was named after him. Lucas’s publicist denied this after Annakin’s death in 2009.[12] Anakin and Luke’s original surname “Starkiller” stayed in the script until a few months into Star Wars, when it was dropped and replaced with “Skywalker” due to what Lucas called “uncomfortable connotations” with Charles Manson .

In other countries

In France, the character’s name was changed to “Dark Vador” as of the original film. Other characters’ names have also been changed, but his name is the only one that has stayed the same in the latest films. The title “Dark” was also used for the other Sith Lords instead of “Darth”.[15]

In the Italian language editions, Darth Vader is called “Dart Fener”. In 2005, prior to the release of Episode III, an online poll asked Italian fans whether they would rather keep the Italian name or switch to the original: the first option won. In 2015, when Episode VII had to be released, the Italian localization decided to change the name to English “Darth Vader”.[16]

In Iceland it is called “Svarthöfði” (which means “blackhead”).

concept and text

In the first draft of “Star Wars,” the tall, fierce general “Darth Vader” was already his final portrayal, and the protagonist Annikin Starkiller, as a 16-year-old son, played a similar role to his son Luke, a distinguished warrior.[17] Originally, Lucas envisioned the Sith as a group serving the Emperor in much the same way as the SS served Adolf Hitler. When developing the backstory for The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas condensed it into one character in the form of Darth Vader.

Following the success of the original Star Wars film, Lucas hired science fiction writer Leigh Brackett to co-write the sequel. They held story conferences and by the end of November 1977 Lucas had created a handwritten treatment. In the first draft Brackett would write of this, Luke’s father appears as a ghost to instruct Luke.[19] Lucas was disappointed with the script, but Brackett died of cancer before he could talk to her about it. With no author available, Lucas wrote the next draft himself. In this April 1, 1978 draft, he used a new storyline: Vader claims to be Luke’s father.[21] According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, in contrast to the years of struggle writing the first film. Lucas has said that he knew Vader was Luke’s father when he wrote the first film, although the relationship was not explicitly proven prior to drafting The Empire Strikes Back.

The new plot element of Luke’s parentage had a drastic impact on the series. Author Michael Kaminski argues in The Secret History of Star Wars that it is unlikely that the plot point was ever seriously considered or even conceived prior to 1978, and that the first film clearly operated under a storyline in which Vader played a different character when Luke was a father.[26] After writing the second and third drafts, which introduce the plot point, Lucas went through the new backstory he had created: Anakin had been Obi-Wan Kenobi’s brilliant student and had a child named Luke, but was raised by Palpatine turned to the dark side. Anakin battled Obi-Wan on a volcano and was badly wounded, but was then reincarnated as Vader. Meanwhile, Obi-Wan hid Luke on Tatooine while the Galactic Republic became the tyrannical Galactic Empire and Vader systematically hunted down and killed the Jedi.[27] An early draft of Return of the Jedi ended with Luke taking Vader’s helmet and declaring “Now I’m Vader.”[28]

After deciding to create the prequel trilogy, Lucas hinted that the story arc would be a tragic one that would depict Anakin’s fall to the dark side. He also saw that the prequels could mark the beginning of a long story that began with Anakin’s infancy and ended with his death in what he termed “the tragedy of Darth Vader.”[2] This was the final step in making the film series a “saga”.[29] For the first prequel, Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999), Lucas made Anakin nine[30][y] to make the character’s separation from his mother more poignant.[32] Movie trailers focused on Anakin, and a one-page poster showing him casting Vader’s shadow informed otherwise unknowing viewers of the character’s eventual fate. The film ultimately achieved a primary goal, which was to introduce Anakin to audiences[29] as well as introduce the concept that he is the chosen one of an ancient Jedi prophecy destined to bring about the balance of power. Lucas says in an interview recorded around the time of the third prequel, Revenge of the Sith (2005), that “Anakin is the chosen one. Even if Anakin turns into Darth Vader, he’s still the chosen one.”[34]

Michael Kaminski provides evidence that problems with Anakin’s fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make fundamental changes to the story, first reworking Revenge of the Sith’s opening sequence to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku to be killed in cold blood by Anakin first act in his turn to the dark side.[35] After filming wrapped in 2003, Lucas rewrote Anakin’s turn to the dark side; Anakin’s fall from grace would now be motivated by a desire to save his wife, Padmé Amidala, and not in the previous version where that reason was one of several including his genuine belief that the Jedi were plotting to destroy the Republic take over. This major makeover was achieved both through editing of the main footage and through new and revised scenes shot during the 2004 shoot.

During production of the animated television series The Clone Wars, Ahsoka Tano was created to illustrate Anakin’s progression from the brash, undisciplined Padawan apprentice in Attack of the Clones (2002) to the more reserved Jedi Knight in Revenge of the Sith. Clone Wars Supervising Director and Star Wars Rebels co-creator Dave Filoni said that giving Anakin the responsibility of a Padawan was meant to put the character in a role that would force him to be more careful and responsible. It would also give him some insight into his relationship with Obi-Wan and how their relationship has matured. Ahsoka and Anakin’s relationship has been seen as a major story arc spanning both the animated film and the Clone Wars television series. Filoni began contemplating the last confrontation between Ahsoka and Vader since he created the former;[39] different iterations have had different endings,[40] including one in which Vader kills Ahsoka while she slashes his helmet around his scarred face to reveal. [41] A similar scene is contained in an episode of Rebels where Ahsoka slices open Vader’s helmet and the Sith Lord recognizes her.[42] According to Filoni, Ahsoka’s presence in the series allows Vader to encounter the show’s main characters without the latter being “destroyed”, as Ahsoka is able to “stand toe-to-toe” with her former master.

draft

Ralph McQuarrie incorporated samurai armor into his concept designs for Vader’s costume in 1975.

The original design of Darth Vader’s costume originally did not include a helmet. The idea of ​​Vader wearing a respirator was first suggested by concept artist Ralph McQuarrie in 1975 during pre-production talks for Star Wars with George Lucas. McQuarrie explained that Luca’s artistic direction was to portray a villainous character in a cloak wearing samurai armor. “For Darth Vader, George just said he’d like to have a very tall, dark, fluttering character that has an eerie feel, like the wind was coming in. He needed to survive in the vacuum of space, and he suggested that Vader have one.” should wear some kind of space suit. Lucas agreed and McQuarrie paired a full-face respirator with a samurai helmet, creating one of space fantasy cinema’s most iconic designs. McQuarrie’s 1975 production painting of Darth Vader in a lightsaber duel with Deak Starkiller (a character prototype for Luke Skywalker) depicts Vader in black armor, a flowing cloak, and an elongated, skull-like mask and helmet. Its resemblance to the final design of Vader’s costume shows that McQuarrie’s earliest conception of Vader was so successful that very little had to be changed for the production.

Based on McQuarrie’s designs, costume designer John Mollo created a costume that could be worn by an actor on screen, using a combination of religious robes, a motorcycle suit, a German military helmet, and a military gas mask.[47] Prop sculptor Brian Muir created the helmet and armor used in the film.[48]

The sound of Vader’s mask breathing function was created by Ben Burtt using modified recordings of breathing apparatus used by divers.[49] The sound effect is the U.S. Registered Patent and Trademark Office under Trademark #77419252 and is officially described in the documentation as “The sound of rhythmic mechanical human respiration made by breathing through a regulator.”[50]

Commentators have often pointed to the influence of Akira Kurosawa’s films such as The Hidden Fortress (1958) on George Lucas, and Vader’s samurai-inspired costume design is held up as a significant example of the Japanese influences on Star Wars.[51]

representations

As father

Darth Vader was portrayed by bodybuilder David Prowse in the original film trilogy, with fencer Bob Anderson performing the character’s lightsaber combat scenes. At 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) tall, George Lucas felt that Prowse “infused Darth Vader with a physicality essential to the character… with an imposing stature and movement performance that matched the intensity and undercurrent of.” Vader’s presence corresponds.” 54]

Lucas chose to have another actor voice Vader as Prowse had a heavy West Country English accent that led the rest of the cast to call him “Darth Farmer”. Lucas originally intended Orson Welles to provide the voice for Vader, but after deciding that Welles’ voice would be too recognizable, he cast the lesser-known James Earl Jones instead. Jones initially felt that his contributions to the films were too minor to warrant credit, and his role went uncredited at his request until the release of Return of the Jedi (1983). When Jones was specifically asked if he provided Vader’s voice for Revenge of the Sith – either new or from a previous recording – Jones replied, “You’d have to ask Lucas that. I don’t know.”[57] Hayden Christensen and Gene Bryant take turns portraying Vader in Revenge of the Sith. [58][59][60][z] During the production of Revenge of the Sith, Christensen asked Lucas if a special Vader suit could be constructed to fit his own body, rather than having another actor do one of the original sets donned by Vader armor worn by Prowse. Brock Peters provided the voice of Darth Vader on the NPR/USC radio series. Both Spencer Wilding[62] and Daniel Naprous portrayed Vader in Rogue One (2016), with Jones reprising his role as the character’s voice.[63][64]

Vader’s character has also been portrayed in several video games; In games like Rebel Assault II: The Hidden Empire and Dark Forces, visual effects artist C. Andrew Nelson appears in brief sequences wearing the Vader costume, voiced by Scott Lawrence. Matt Sloan, who appeared in the YouTube spoof Chad Vader, provided the voice of Darth Vader in The Force Unleashed.[65] As a result of his appearances in video games, Nelson was cast to appear as Vader in short sequences inserted into The Empire Strikes Back special edition, in which Vader boards his shuttle.

As Anakin

Hayden Christensen portrayed Anakin Skywalker in the final two episodes of the prequel trilogy, other minor film appearances. He later took on the role of Vader in 2022 as well.

During the production of Return of the Jedi, the casting crew sought an experienced actor for the role of Anakin Skywalker, as his death was undoubtedly the emotional high point of the film, and Sebastian Shaw was chosen for the role.[66][aa] As Shaw When he arrived on set to film, he met his friend Ian McDiarmid, the actor who played the Emperor. When McDiarmid asked him what he was doing there, Shaw replied, “I don’t know, dear boy, I think it has something to do with science fiction.”[68] His presence during filming was kept secret from everyone except the minimum cast and crew, and Shaw was contractually obligated not to discuss movie secrets with anyone, not even his family. The unmasking scene, directed by Richard Marquand, was shot in one day and required only a few takes, with no change to the original dialogue.[66] Lucas personally directed Shaw for his performance in the film’s final scene, where he plays Anakin’s Force Spirit. Shaw’s likeness in this scene was replaced with Christensen’s in the 2004 DVD release. This attempt to tie the prequel and original trilogies together was one of the most controversial changes in a Star Wars re-release.[69][70][z] Shaw received more fan mail and autograph requests from Return of the Jedi than he had previously for every role in the rest of his career. He later reflected that he enjoyed his experience with the film and expressed particular surprise that his portrayal was made into an action figure.[66]

When The Phantom Menace was being produced, hundreds of actors were screened for the role of young Anakin[72] before the producers settled on Jake Lloyd, who Lucas described as meeting his requirements for “a good actor, enthusiastic and very energetic”. Producer Rick McCallum said Lloyd is “smart, mischievous, and loves all things mechanical—as does Anakin”. Anakin before Lucas finally picked Hayden Christensen for the role,[75] allegedly because he and Natalie Portman (the actress who plays Padmé Amidala) “looked good together.”[76] When Revenge of the Sith was being produced, Christensen and Ewan McGregor began rehearsing their dramatic lightsaber duel long before Lucas would fire it. They trained extensively with stunt coordinator Nick Gillard to memorize their duel and perform it together. As in the previous prequel film, McGregor and Christensen performed their own lightsaber combat scenes without the use of stunt doubles.

Anakin was also voiced by Mat Lucas for the 2003 microseries Clone Wars and by Matt Lanter in the CGI animated film The Clone Wars, the television series of the same name, and for Anakin’s small roles in the animated series Rebels and Forces of Fate.[78] James Earl Jones reprized the voice role for Vader’s appearances in Rebels. Both Lanter and Jones contributed their voices for the season 2 finale of Rebels, sometimes with identical dialogue spoken by both actors and mixed together in different ways.

Characteristics

In Attack of the Clones, Anakin Skywalker feels “suffocated” by Obi-Wan Kenobi and unable to control his own life.[82] Through Revenge of the Sith, however, his “father-son” friction with his Master has matured into a more equal, brotherly relationship.[83] Once he becomes Darth Vader, any evil deed he commits destroys any hope or connection to his past life, making it more difficult for him to return to the light,[84] but he ultimately escapes the dark side and redeems himself, sacrificing his life to save his son Luke Skywalker and kill the Emperor in Return of the Jedi.[85]

Eric Bui, a psychiatrist at the University of Toulouse Hospital, argued at the 2007 American Psychiatric Association meeting that Anakin Skywalker met six of the nine diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder (BPD), one more than needed for a diagnosis. He and a colleague, Rachel Rodgers, published their findings in a 2010 letter to the editor of the journal Psychiatry Research. Bui says he found Anakin Skywalker a useful example to explain BPD to medical students.[86] Bui specifically points to Anakin’s abandonment issues and uncertainty about his identity. Anakin’s mass murders of the Tusken Raiders in Attack of the Clones and the young Jedi in Revenge of the Sith count as two dissociative episodes that meet another criterion. Bui hoped his article would help raise awareness of the disorder, particularly among teenagers.[86]

appearances

Darth Vader/Anakin Skywalker appear in seven of the live-action Star Wars films, The Clone Wars animated series (including the film), Rebels, and the Clone Wars and Forces of Destiny microseries. He also has major and recurring roles in games, comics, books, and the non-canon Star Wars Legends material.

Skywalker saga

Original trilogy

Darth Vader first appears in Star Wars[w] as a ruthless cyborg Sith Lord serving the Galactic Empire.[52] He is tasked with Grand Moff Tarkin (Peter Cushing) to restore the secret plans for the Death Star battle station stolen by the Rebel Alliance. Vader captures and tortures Princess Leia (Carrie Fisher), who hid the plans in the droid R2-D2 (Kenny Baker) and sent him to find Vader’s former Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness) on the planet Tatooine. While Leia is being rescued by Obi-Wan’s allies Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) and Han Solo (Harrison Ford), Vader knocks Obi-Wan down in a lightsaber duel. After placing a tracking device aboard their ship, the Millennium Falcon, Vader is able to track down the rebel base on the planet Yavin 4.[87] During the Rebel attack on the Death Star, Vader boards his TIE Advanced and shoots down the Rebel X-wings, but Solo intervenes and sends Vader’s ship off course, allowing Luke to destroy the Death Star.

In The Empire Strikes Back, Vader becomes obsessed with finding the Force-sensitive Luke[87] and leads his stormtroopers to attack the rebel base on Hoth, but the rebels escape. While conversing with the Emperor (Ian McDiarmid) via hologram, Vader convinces him that Luke would be a valuable ally if he could be turned to the dark side. Vader hires a group of bounty hunters to follow Luke’s friends and negotiates with Bespin Administrator Lando Calrissian (Billy Dee Williams) to set a trap for them to bait Luke. After Han, Leia, Chewbacca (Peter Mayhew), and C-3PO (Anthony Daniels) arrive, Vader tortures and freezes Han in carbonite and gives him to bounty hunter Boba Fett (Jeremy Bulloch).[87] When Luke arrives, Vader overpowers him in a lightsaber duel and severes his hand. Vader tells Luke that he is his father and tries to persuade him to join the dark side and help him overthrow the Emperor. Horrified, Luke escapes through an air shaft. Vader telepathically tells Luke that he is destined to join the dark side.[87]

In Return of the Jedi, Vader and the Emperor oversee the final stages of construction of the second Death Star.[87] Thinking his father is still good, Luke surrenders to Vader and tries to convince him to turn from the dark side. Vader takes Luke to the second Death Star to meet the Emperor. There, the Emperor Luke tries to contain his anger, leading to Vader dueling Luke again.[87] When Vader realizes that Leia is Luke’s twin sister, he threatens to turn her to the dark side if Luke doesn’t submit. Enraged, Luke overpowers Vader and severes his father’s cybernetic hand. The Emperor asks Luke to kill Vader and take his place. Luke refuses and the Emperor tortures him with Force lightning. Unwilling to let his son die, Vader throws the Emperor down a reactor shaft to his death, but is fatally electrocuted in the process. Anakin Skywalker redeemed asks Luke to remove his mask and admits there was still good in him as he dies peacefully in his son’s arms.[88] Luke escapes the second Death Star with his father’s body and burns it in a pyre on Endor. As the rebels celebrate the destruction of the second Death Star and the defeat of the Empire, Luke sees the spirits of Anakin, Yoda (Frank Oz), and Obi-Wan watching over him.[88]

In the original trilogy, David Prowse physically portrayed Vader while James Earl Jones voiced him. Sebastian Shaw portrayed the unmasked Anakin in Return of the Jedi, as well as the character’s spirit, before the 2004 re-release, when he was replaced by Hayden Christensen as Anakin’s Force spirit.

prequel trilogy

In Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, set 32 ​​years before A New Hope, Anakin appears as a nine-year-old slave[32] living on Tatooine with his mother, Shmi (Pernilla August). In addition to being a gifted pilot and mechanic, Anakin built his own protocol droid, C-3PO. Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) meets Anakin after crash-landing on Tatooine with the Queen of Naboo, Padmé Amidala (Natalie Portman). Qui-Gon learns from Shmi that Anakin was conceived without a father and can see the future. Sensing Anakin’s strong connection to the Force, Qui-Gon is convinced he is the Jedi prophecy’s “chosen one” who will bring balance to the Force. In fact, Skywalker’s test in the Midi-Chlorian Count, which scored off the charts, showed that his potential to wield the Force was unparalleled. After winning his freedom in a podrace bet, Anakin goes with Qui-Gon to train as a Jedi on Coruscant, but is forced to leave his mother behind. During the journey, Anakin forms a bond with Padmé. Qui-Gon asks the Jedi Council for permission to train Anakin, but they refuse, concerned that he is vulnerable to the dark side. Finally, Anakin helps end the corrupt Trade Federation’s invasion of Naboo by destroying their control ship. After being killed in a lightsaber duel with Sith Lord Darth Maul (portrayed by Ray Park, voiced by Peter Serafinowicz), Qui-Gon asks his apprentice Obi-Wan Kenobi (Ewan McGregor) to train Anakin, which the Council reluctantly accepts. 88] Palpatine, newly elected Chancellor of the Galactic Republic, befriends Anakin and tells him that he will “watch his career with great interest”.

In Episode II: Attack of the Clones, set 10 years after The Phantom Menace, 19-year-old Anakin is still Obi-Wan’s Padawan apprentice. Over the years he has become powerful but arrogant, believing that Obi-Wan is holding him back. After Anakin saves Padmé from an assassination attempt, he travels to Naboo with her as her bodyguard, and they fall in love, which is against the Jedi Code. Sensing that Shmi is in pain, Anakin travels to Tatooine with Padmé to rescue his mother. There, Anakin learns that a few years after his departure, Shmi was freed and married by farmer Cliegg Lars (Jack Thompson). He then visits Cliegg and learns from him that she was kidnapped by Tusken Raiders. Anakin finds Shmi at a Tusken campground, where she dies in his arms. Overcome with grief and anger, Anakin massacres the Tusken tribe and returns to Lars’ homestead to bury Shmi. Anakin then travels to Geonosis with Padmé to rescue Obi-Wan from Sith Lord Count Dooku (Christopher Lee). Dooku captures the trio and sentences them to death. However, a battalion of Jedi arrives with an army of clone troopers to stop the executions. Obi-Wan and Anakin confront Dooku, but the Sith Lord defeats them both in a lightsaber duel and severes Anakin’s arm. After being rescued by Yoda, Anakin is fitted with a robotic arm and marries Padmé in a secret ceremony.

In Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, set three years after Attack of the Clones, Anakin is now a Jedi Knight and a hero of the clone wars. He and Obi-Wan lead a mission to rescue Palpatine from the Separatist commander, General Grievous (voiced by Matthew Wood). The two Jedi battle Count Dooku, whom Anakin overpowers in cold blood and decapitates at Palpatine’s urging. They rescue Palpatine and return to Coruscant. Anakin reunites with Padmé, who tells him she is pregnant. Although initially excited, Anakin soon begins having nightmares in which Padmé dies in childbirth. Palpatine ernennt Anakin auch als seinen persönlichen Vertreter in den Rat der Jedi. Der Rat ist Palpatine gegenüber misstrauisch und lässt Anakin als Mitglied zu, lehnt es jedoch ab, ihm den Rang eines Jedi-Meisters zu verleihen, und weist ihn stattdessen an, Palpatine auszuspionieren, was Anakins Vertrauen in die Jedi verringert. Später enthüllt Palpatine Anakin, dass er Sith-Lord Darth Sidious ist, der Mastermind des Krieges, und sagt, dass nur er die Macht hat, Padmé vor dem Tod zu retten. Anakin meldet Palpatines Verrat dem Jedi-Meister Mace Windu (Samuel L. Jackson), der den Sith-Lord konfrontiert und unterwirft. Anakin ist verzweifelt, Padmé zu retten, greift für Palpatine ein und entwaffnet Windu, sodass Palpatine ihn töten kann. Anakin verpflichtet sich dann den Sith und Palpatine nennt ihn Darth Vader.[88]

Auf Palpatines Befehl führt Vader die 501. Legion an, um alle im Jedi-Tempel zu töten, einschließlich der Kinder, und geht dann zum Vulkanplaneten Mustafar, um den Rat der Separatisten zu ermorden. Eine verstörte Padmé geht zu Mustafar und fleht Vader an, die dunkle Seite aufzugeben, aber er lehnt ab. Vader spürt Obi-Wans Anwesenheit und denkt, dass sie sich verschworen haben, ihn zu töten, und setzt die Macht wütend ein, um Padmé bis zur Bewusstlosigkeit zu erwürgen. Obi-Wan verwickelt Vader in ein Lichtschwertduell, das damit endet, dass Obi-Wan Vaders Gliedmaßen abtrennt und ihn tot am Ufer eines Lavastroms liegen lässt, wo Vader schwere Verbrennungen davonträgt. Palpatine findet einen kaum lebenden Vader und bringt ihn nach Coruscant, wo sein verstümmelter Körper behandelt und mit dem schwarzen Anzug bedeckt wird, der erstmals in der ursprünglichen Trilogie abgebildet war. Als Vader fragt, ob Padmé in Sicherheit ist, sagt Palpatine, dass er sie aus Wut getötet und ihn verwüstet hat. Am Ende des Films überwacht Vader neben Palpatine und Tarkin (Wayne Pygram) den Bau des ersten Todessterns.

Jake Lloyd spielte Anakin Skywalker als Kind in The Phantom Menace, während Hayden Christensen ihn in den folgenden beiden Filmen als jungen Erwachsenen spielte. James Earl Jones wiederholte seine Rolle als Stimme von Vader unter seiner Maske.

Continuation of the trilogy

Dreißig Jahre nach dem Galaktischen Bürgerkrieg erscheint Darth Vaders geschmolzener Helm in The Force Awakens (2015), in dem Vaders Enkel Kylo Ren (Adam Driver) – der in die Fußstapfen seines Großvaters getreten ist, indem er auf die dunkle Seite gefallen ist und die Jedi verraten hat – ist zu sehen, wie er ihn anspricht, obwohl Vader nicht im Film vorkommt. [ab] An einem Punkt wurde sein Helm als der MacGuffin des Films betrachtet. Der Helm erscheint erneut in The Rise of Skywalker (2019), als Kylo kurz damit meditiert, und während des ersten Duells des Films zwischen Kylo und Rey (Daisy Ridley). Der Helm wurde zuletzt auf dem Planeten Kijimi gesehen, der später von einem Sith-Sternenzerstörer zerstört wird. Der Film enthüllt auch, dass die Stimme, die Ren in The Force Awakens von Vaders Helm kommend wahrgenommen hat, von einem auferstandenen Palpatine erzeugt wurde.

In The Rise of Skywalker macht Anakin zusammen mit anderen “Stimmen der Jedi-Vergangenheit” einen stimmlichen Cameo-Auftritt, in dem er Rey ermutigt, “das Gleichgewicht wiederherzustellen … wie [er] es getan hat”, bevor sie sich Palpatine und seinen Sith-Streitkräften stellt. [90][91] Palpatine benutzt die Stimme von Darth Vader, um telepathisch mit Ren zu sprechen.

Er wird von James Earl Jones als Vader und Hayden Christensen als Anakin geäußert.

Other Star Wars films

The Clone Wars (film)

In the 2008 3D animated film The Clone Wars, Yoda (voiced by Tom Kane) assigns Ahsoka Tano (voiced by Ashley Eckstein) as Anakin’s Padawan apprentice, a responsibility Anakin is at first reluctant to accept. Anakin calls her “Snips” for her “snippy” attitude, while Ahsoka calls him “Skyguy” as a pun on his surname.[88] After earning Anakin’s respect during a dangerous mission, Ahsoka joins him on a quest to rescue Jabba the Hutt’s infant son, Rotta. Her impetuousness both annoys and endears her to her master, and Anakin develops a friendly affection for his apprentice.

He is voiced by Matt Lanter.

Villain One

In the anthology film Rogue One (2016), Darth Vader makes a cameo appearance in which he summons Orson Krennic (Ben Mendelsohn), the Imperial Director of Advanced Weapons Research, to his castle on Mustafar. He confronts him about his handling of the Death Star project and the destruction of Jedha City, while Krennic asks Vader for an audience with the Emperor regarding the Death Star, which he lost command of to Tarkin. Vader refuses, ordering him to ensure that the Death Star project has not been compromised.[92] When Krennic asks him if he would still regain command of the Death Star, Vader uses the Force to choke him, telling him, “Be careful not to choke on your aspirations, Director.”[93] At the end of the film, Vader boards the disabled Rebel flagship, the MC75 Star Cruiser Profundity, with a cadre of 501st Legion troopers and kills several Rebel soldiers as he attempts to recover the plans. However, the docked blockade runner Tantive IV escapes with the plans, setting up the events of A New Hope.

Darth Vader had a much different role in early versions of the film’s story. Screenwriter Gary Whitta stated that in his initial pitch, Vader would appear on Scarif and slaughter the Rebel blockade there.[94] In an earlier storyline, Vader would also have killed Krennic for his failure to prevent the Rebels from stealing the Death Star plans.[95] An image of a deleted scene featuring Vader was revealed in February 2021 by Industrial Light & Magic visual effects animator Hal Hickel, who added that Vader was supposed to have a conversation with Tarkin in that scene.[96]

James Earl Jones also reprises his role from previous films as the voice of Darth Vader, who is physically portrayed by Spencer Wilding during the meeting with Krennic and aboard the Star Destroyer, and by Daniel Naprous for the end scene.

TV series

Clone Wars (2003–2005)

Anakin is a lead character in all three seasons of the Clone Wars micro-series, which takes place shortly after the conclusion of Attack of the Clones. Anakin becomes a Jedi Knight and is quickly promoted to a General of the Republic’s Clone Army, due in part to Palpatine’s (voiced by Nick Jameson) influence. Among other missions, he fights a duel with Dooku’s apprentice Asajj Ventress (voiced by Grey DeLisle), helps Obi-Wan (voiced by James Arnold Taylor) capture a Separatist-controlled fortress and rescues Jedi Master Saesee Tiin (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) during a space battle. During the third season, Anakin frees a planet’s indigenous species from Separatist control and sees a cryptic vision of his future as Darth Vader. In the series finale, Anakin and Obi-Wan go on a mission to rescue Palpatine from General Grievous, leading to the opening of Revenge of the Sith.

He is voiced by Mat Lucas as an adult and Frankie Ryan Mariquez as a child.

The Clone Wars (2008–2014, 2020)

Anakin is a lead character in all seasons of The Clone Wars. As a Jedi Knight, he leads the 501st Legion on missions with both his master Obi-Wan and apprentice Ahsoka Tano throughout the war. Some of Anakin’s actions taken out of concern for Ahsoka violate the Jedi code, such as torturing prisoners who may know her location when she goes missing.[97] Throughout the series there are several references to Anakin’s eventual fall to the dark side, including visions of his future as Darth Vader in the third season, and disillusion with the Jedi Council after they wrongly accuse Ahsoka of bombing the Jedi Temple in the fifth season. While she is later forgiven after the true culprit is found, she nonetheless chooses to leave the Jedi Order.[98] Anakin appears as Vader in the final scene of the series finale, set some time after Revenge of the Sith. He investigates the crash site of the Venator-class Star Destroyer Tribunal, which was destroyed during Order 66. Finding one of Ahsoka’s lightsabers among the wreckage, Vader assumes that his former Padawan has perished and leaves in silence.

Matt Lanter reprised his role as Anakin from the movie.

Rebels (2014–2018)

Darth Vader appears in Star Wars Rebels, which takes place 14 years after The Clone Wars concluded. He makes minor appearances throughout the first season, and serves as the main antagonist for most the second season.[99] At the beginning of the series, Vader leads a squadron of Force-sensitive Imperial Inquisitors who actively search for and kill any remaining Jedi and Force-sensitive children. In the first season, he dispatches the Grand Inquisitor to hunt a Rebel cell causing trouble for the Empire on Lothal, and personally arrives on Lothal to deal with the Rebel threat after the Inquisitor is killed. In the second-season premiere, Vader orchestrates the murder of Imperial Minister Maketh Tua, who tried to defect to the Rebellion, and confronts the Jedi Kanan Jarrus and Ezra Bridger. When he later attacks the fleet of the Phoenix Squadron, Vader discovers that Ahsoka is still alive and has joined the Rebel Alliance,[100] while Ahsoka is overwhelmed when she recognizes Anakin under “a layer of hate” in Darth Vader. The Emperor orders Vader to dispatch another Inquisitor to capture her.[40] Later in the season, Ahsoka has a vision in which Anakin blames her for allowing him to fall to the dark side. In the season finale, Ahsoka duels with her former master inside a Sith Temple, allowing her friends to escape Vader and the temple’s destruction. As the episode concludes, Vader escapes from the temple’s ruins while Ahsoka’s fate is left unknown. Vader makes a final voiceless cameo in the late fourth-season episode “A World Between Worlds”, in which it is revealed that Ahsoka escaped from her previous duel with Vader by entering a Force-realm that exists outside of time and space. Shortly afterward, Vader’s voice (archival audio from Return of the Jedi) is heard echoing in the void.

Matt Lanter reprised his role from The Clone Wars as Anakin and James Earl Jones as Vader. Both Lanter and Jones contributed their voices for the second-season finale, at times with identical dialogue spoken by both actors blended together in different ways.

Forces of Destiny (2017–2018)

Anakin Skywalker appears in multiple episodes of the 2D animated online micro-series Forces of Destiny[78] with Matt Lanter reprising his role.

Obi Wan Kenobi

Hayden Christensen returned as Darth Vader, both in and out of armor, in the Disney+ streaming series Obi-Wan Kenobi[101] with Dimitrious Bistrevesky serving as performance artist for the character, while James Earl Jones returns to voice the character. The series reveals that for a decade after their duel on Mustafar, Obi-Wan believed his fallen apprentice to be dead, only for the Imperial Inquisitor Reva to reveal that Anakin Skywalker is alive.[102] After Reva draws out Kenobi, Vader begins hunting his former master, seeking to exact revenge on Kenobi for the injuries he inflicted upon him back on Mustafar. Christensen also returns in flashback sequences, both as a newly-minted Darth Vader carrying out the massacre at the Jedi Temple, and as Padawan Anakin Skywalker, training with Kenobi in the years preceding the Clone Wars.

Ahsoka

In October 2021, The Hollywood Reporter reported that, according to undisclosed sources, Christensen would reprise his role as Anakin in the Ahsoka series, which is set after the original trilogy and scheduled for 2023.[103]

video games

Darth Vader and Anakin Skywalker have appeared in a number of Star Wars since the earliest days of the franchise, though rarely as a playable character. Vader plays a central role in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (2008), where he is the playable character for the first level of the game. He also appears in the sequel Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II as the final boss.

Vader makes a cameo appearance in the final mission of Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order, after the main antagonist, the Second Sister, is defeated. After Vader kills her for her failure to retrieve a Jedi Holocron, the protagonist, Padawan Cal Kestis, must escape from Vader, who attempts to get the Holocron in his possession. Cal is ultimately able to escape from Vader’s grasp with the help of his allies.

Darth Vader has appeared as a playable character in every Lego Star Wars video game to date, including The Skywalker Saga.[104]

Darth Vader has appeared as a playable character and a boss in Angry Birds Star Wars and its sequel played by Red. When Vader is used, building blocks magnetically stick to his body and are then fired out at various angles.[105]

In video games, Darth Vader is often voiced by Scott Lawrence or Matt Sloan, while Anakin is voiced by Mat Lucas and Matt Lanter.[citation needed]

Canon literature

Star Wars: Lords of the Sith was one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015.[106] In it, Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi’lek planet Ryloth.[107][108]

Comics

In 2015, Marvel released a 25-issue series called Darth Vader (2015–16),[109] written by Kieron Gillen. It focuses on the Sith lord in the aftermath of the Death Star’s destruction, as well as his life after learning about his son’s existence,[110] and introduces franchise fan favorite character Doctor Aphra.[111] This series takes place parallel to the comic book series Star Wars, in which Vader and Luke meet;[112] the two series have a crossover titled Vader Down.[113] A continuation set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi debuted in 2020, written by Greg Pak.[114] The first few issues deal with Vader carrying out his revenge on those who concealed Luke; he also visits Padmé’s tomb on Naboo and encounters her handmaidens.[115] A subsequent story arc depicts Vader being tested by the Emperor and incorporates elements created for The Rise of Skywalker.[116][117]

The five-issue limited series Obi-Wan & Anakin (2016), written by Charles Soule, depicts the lives of the titular Jedi between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones. At New York Comic Con 2015, Soule described the story as “pretty unexplored territory”.[118]

Between 2017 and 2018, Soule wrote a prequel-era series, also called Darth Vader (sometimes subtitled Dark Lord of the Sith). It begins immediately after Vader wakes up in his armor at the end of Revenge of the Sith and explores his emotional transformation upon learning of Padmé’s death, his adjustment to his mechanical suit, how he creates his red-bladed lightsaber, and his hunting of Jedi in the Inquisitor program (introduced in Rebels).[119] Its final arc, which deals with the construction of Vader’s fortress on Mustafar, implies that Palpatine used the Force to conceive Anakin in utero,[120] as some had theorized that Revenge of the Sith indicates.[121][ac] A Lucasfilm story group member later clarified that “This is all in Anakin’s head”.[122][ad]

A five-issue limited series written by Dennis Hopeless, Vader: Dark Visions, was released in 2019. According to Marvel, the series “sheds new light on the many sides of the galaxy’s greatest villain”.[123]

legends

In April 2014, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded by Lucasfilm as Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise.[106][124]

Books

Vader is featured prominently in novels set in the Star Wars universe. In the 1978 novel Splinter of the Mind’s Eye by Alan Dean Foster, Vader meets Luke Skywalker for the first time and engages him in a lightsaber duel that ends with Luke cutting off Vader’s arm and Vader falling into a deep pit.[52] Shadows of the Empire (1996) reveals that Vader is conflicted about trying to turn his son to the dark side of the Force, and knows deep down that he still has good in him.

Vader’s supposedly indestructible glove is the MacGuffin of the young-reader’s book The Glove of Darth Vader (1992). Anakin Skywalker’s redeemed spirit appears in The Truce at Bakura (1993), set a few days after the end of Return of the Jedi. He appears to Leia, imploring her forgiveness. Leia condemns Anakin for his crimes and banishes him from her life. He promises that he will be there for her when she needs him, and disappears. In Tatooine Ghost (2003), Leia learns to forgive her father after learning about his childhood as a slave and his mother’s traumatic death. In The Unifying Force (2003), Anakin tells his grandson Jacen Solo to “stand firm” in his battle with the Supreme Overlord of the Yuuzhan Vong.

Upon the release of the prequel films, the Expanded Universe grew to include novels about Vader’s former life as Anakin Skywalker. Greg Bear’s 2000 novel Rogue Planet and Jude Watson’s Jedi Quest series chronicle Anakin’s early missions with Obi-Wan, while James Luceno’s 2005 novel Labyrinth of Evil, set during the Clone Wars, depicts Anakin battling Separatist commander General Grievous. In Luceno’s Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005), set a few months after the events of Revenge of the Sith, Vader disavows his identity as Anakin Skywalker as he systematically pursues and kills the surviving Jedi and cements his position in the Empire.

In the Dark Nest trilogy (2005), Luke and Leia uncover old recordings of their parents in R2-D2’s memory drive; for the first time, they see their own birth and their mother’s death, as well as their father’s corruption to the dark side. In Bloodlines (2006), Han and Leia’s son Jacen—who has turned to the dark side—uses the Force to envision Vader slaughtering the children at the Jedi Temple.

Vader also appears in a series of tongue-in-cheek children’s books by Jeffrey Brown.[125] In Brown’s series, a hapless Vader sets out to be a father to a young Luke and Leia, with some scenes portraying light-hearted versions of their darker film counterparts. For example, one scene shows Vader, Luke and Leia at the carbonite freezing chamber on Bespin, with Vader pronouncing the freezer adequate for making ice cream.

Comics

Vader appears in several comic books such as Marvel Comics’ Star Wars (1977–1986). In Dark Empire II, he is revealed to have had a castle on the planet Vjun.[126] Anakin Skywalker is a major character in Dark Horse Comics’ Star Wars: Republic series (1998–2006). In Boba Fett: Enemy of the Empire (1999), Vader hires Fett a few years before the events of A New Hope. In Vader’s Quest (1999), set soon after A New Hope, the dark lord encounters Luke for the first time.[ae] Star Wars: Empire (2002–2005) spans from about a year before A New Hope to several months afterwards. Anakin and Vader appear in the non-canonical Star Wars Tales (1999–2005); in the story Resurrection, Darth Maul is resurrected and faces Vader in battle.[128]

Vader-centric comics released and set just after Revenge of the Sith include Dark Times (2006–2013), Darth Vader and the Lost Command (2011), Darth Vader and the Ghost Prison (2012), and Darth Vader and the Cry of Shadows (2013–14).

Virtual reality game

In the 2015 Star Wars Celebration, it was announced David S. Goyer was helping to develop a virtual reality game series based on Darth Vader. As an observer with limited influence, the player is able to walk, pick up, push and open things, and possibly affect the story.[129] The game, titled Vader Immortal, had three episodes overall, set between Revenge of the Sith and Rogue One; the first became available with the launch of Oculus Quest,[130] while the last episode was released on November 21, 2019.[131] The game was later ported to the Oculus Rift. On August 25, 2020, all three episodes were also released on PlayStation VR.[132]

In the games Vader was voiced by Scott Lawrence.

Miscellaneous

The Star Wars Holiday Special, a television special broadcast by CBS in 1978, features a brief appearance of Darth Vader, who appears on-screen speaking with Imperial officer “Chief Bast” in footage cut from the original 1977 film. The sequence is dubbed with new dialogue, performed by James Earl Jones. In the story, Vader colludes with Boba Fett to entrap the Rebels.[133]

He appears in the Lego Star Wars shorts voiced by Matt Sloan as Vader and Kirby Morrow as Anakin.

Darth Vader features in the 1981 radio drama adaptation of Star Wars, voiced by the actor Brock Peters. Vader makes his first appearance on the planet Ralltiir, where he treats Princess Leia with suspicion. In later extended scenes, he is heard interrogating and torturing Leia on board his Star Destroyer and aboard the Death Star.[134][135]

Vader appears in Star Tours – The Adventures Continue, where he is once again voiced by Jones.[136]

Darth Vader has also appeared in non-Star Wars video games as a guest character, for example Soulcalibur IV (2008). An action figure of Vader comes to life alongside RoboCop and Jurassic Park toys in The Indian in the Cupboard (1995).[137] Vader also had a brief cameo in Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009), in which he and Oscar the Grouch try unsuccessfully to join the army formed by Ivan the Terrible, Napoleon and Al Capone.[138][139]

cultural impact

In 2003, the American Film Institute listed Vader as the third greatest movie villain in cinema history on AFI’s 100 Years…100 Heroes & Villains, behind Hannibal Lecter and Norman Bates.[140] His role as a tragic hero in the saga has also met with positive reviews.[141][142] Contrarily, in 1977, a New Journal and Guide writer criticized the lack of racial diversity in the original Star Wars film, pointing out that “the force of evil … is dressed in all black and has the voice of a black man.”[143] George Lucas felt hurt at such accusations.[144]

Psychiatrists have considered Vader to be a useful example for explaining borderline personality disorder to medical students.[86] Anakin’s origin story in The Phantom Menace has been compared to signifiers of African American racial identity, particularly his being a slave,[145] and his dissatisfaction with his life has been compared to Siddartha’s before he became Gautama Buddha.[146] A Mexican church advised Christians against seeing The Phantom Menace because it portrays Anakin as a Christ figure.[147]

Many films and television series have paid homage to Darth Vader. The 1982 movie Cosmic Princess, compiled from parts of Space: 1999 episodes, contains several Star Wars references including a character named “Vader”.[148] Marty McFly in Back to the Future (1985), dressed in a radiation suit, calls himself “Darth Vader from the planet Vulcan” in one scene. Vader is parodied as “Dark Helmet” (Rick Moranis) in the Star Wars parody Spaceballs (1987). A primary antagonist in Final Fantasy IV (1991) was stated by game creator Takashi Tokita to be based on Vader.[149] In Chasing Amy (1997), Hooper X (Dwight Ewell) speaks at a comic book convention about Darth Vader being a metaphor for how poorly the science fiction genre treats Black people; he is especially offended that Vader, the “Blackest brother in the galaxy”, reveals himself to be a “feeble, crusty old white man” at the end of Return of the Jedi. Vader, especially his role as a father, is parodied as Emperor Zurg in Toy Story 2.[150] The character of Dark Mayhem in The Thundermans is also a parody of Vader, especially in his original depiction. The Warner Bros. animated show Loonatics Unleashed has a Sylvester the Cat-type character named Sylth Vester, a play on Vader and his name.

Ricinus vaderi Chewing lice; the one on the right, with a Vader-esque head, is

The slime-mold beetle Agathidium vaderi is named after Vader,[151] as is the louse Ricinus vaderi.[152] Several buildings across the globe are regularly compared to him.[153][154][155][156][157] A grotesque of Darth Vader looms over the east face of the Washington National Cathedral’s northwest tower.[158] During the 2007–08 NHL season, Ottawa Senators goaltender Martin Gerber performed so well in an all-black mask that fans endearingly termed him “Darth Gerber”.[159]

Many commentators and comedians have also evoked Vader’s visage to satirize politicians and other public figures, and several American political figures have been unflatteringly compared to the character. In response to Ronald Reagan’s proposed Strategic Defense Initiative (dubbed “Star Wars” by his political opponents), German news magazine Der Spiegel portrayed the president wearing Vader’s helmet on its cover in 1984.[160] In 2005, Al Gore referred to Tele-Communications Inc.’s John C. Malone as the “Darth Vader of cable”,[161] and political strategist Lee Atwater was known by his political enemies as “the Darth Vader of the Republican Party”.[162] Native American artist Bunky Echohawk portrayed General George Armstrong Custer as Vader in his painting Darth Custer.[163] In 2015, a statue of Vladimir Lenin in Odessa, Ukraine, was converted into one of Vader due to a law on decommunization.[164]

In 2006, while discussing the war on terror, US Vice President Dick Cheney stated, “I suppose, sometimes, people look at my demeanor and say, ‘Well, he’s the Darth Vader of the administration.'”[165] In January 2007, Jon Stewart put on a Vader helmet to address Cheney as a “kindred spirit” on The Daily Show.[166] Cheney’s wife, Lynne, presented Stewart with a Darth Vader action figure on her October 2007 appearance on the show. Both Stewart and Stephen Colbert have occasionally referred to Cheney as “Darth Cheney”. In the satirical cartoon show Lil’ Bush, Cheney’s father is portrayed as Vader. At a presidential campaign event in September 2007, Hillary Clinton also referred to Cheney as Vader. At the 2008 Washington Radio and Television Correspondents’ Association Dinner, Cheney joked that his wife told him that the Vader comparison “humanizes” him. In 2009, George Lucas stated that Cheney is more akin to Palpatine, and that a better stand-in for Vader would be George W. Bush.[167] An issue of Newsweek referenced this quote, and compared Bush and Cheney to Vader and Palpatine, respectively, in a satirical article comparing politicians to various Star Wars and Star Trek characters.[168]

In 2010, IGN ranked Darth Vader 25th in the “Top 100 Videogame Villains”.[169]

In Ukraine, the Internet Party of Ukraine regularly lets people named Darth Vader take part in elections.[170][af]

In 2019, an original Vader helmet from The Empire Strikes Back was sold for $900,000 in an online auction.[178]

On December 2, 2020, a figurine of Vader appeared on the plinth where the statue of Edward Colston once stood in Bristol, United Kingdom, in what was seen as a tribute to David Prowse, who died on November 29, 2020.[179]

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synonyms

refusal noun the refusal to do something

Silence noun the refusal to talk about something or give information

denial noun the refusal to cede or do something to someone

Veto noun an official refusal to authorize or allow something

ban noun an official statement instructing people not to do, sell, or use something

rejection noun a refusal to accept, approve, or support something

dismissal noun a refusal to accept that something might be true or important

Resistance Noun Refusal to accept something new, such as a plan, idea, or change

Denial noun in psychology, a refusal to accept the uncomfortable truth about a situation or to admit what one is feeling

pushback noun resistance to an introduced change

unwillingness to show, accept, do, engage, or consent

She declined the award, citing the hard work of others who deserved the recognition more than she did

don’t want to grant

The reclusive film star normally declines interview requests

Rubbish had littered the playground until our volunteer group cleaned it up

Frequently asked questions about waste

How does the word reject differ from other similar verbs?

Some common synonyms for reject are deny, reject, reject, and scorn. While all of these words mean “turning away by not accepting, receiving, or considering,” “rejecting” suggests more positivity or disgrace, and often implies refusal of something asked for.

refused to lend them the money

In what contexts can denial take the place of denial?

In some situations, the words deny and deny are roughly synonymous. However, a refusal often implies a polite refusal, especially of offers or invitations.

rejected his party’s nomination

When is Decline a more appropriate choice than Decline?

The synonyms reject and reject are sometimes interchangeable, but reject implies a decided rejection by sending away or throwing away.

rejected the manuscript as unpublished

When can reject be used instead of reject?

The words reject and deny can be used in similar contexts, but reject implies dismissing or denying as untrue, unauthorized, or unworthy of acceptance.

Teens who reject their parents’ values

When might scorn be used to replace trash?

Although the words scorn and reject have much in common, scorn emphasizes contempt or contempt in rejection or rejection.

spurned his offers of friendship

It really depends on what they refuse and why they refuse. And the point of view of the person who describes it.

For example, if someone refuses to go to war because they have moral objections to war in general, we call them a “conscientious objector.” If he refuses to go because he’s afraid of getting hurt, we call him a “coward.” If he refuses to go because he sympathizes with the enemy, we might even call him a “traitor.” Etc.

If a guy asks a girl out and she says no, he might say she’s “stuck.” She could describe herself as “discriminatory”.

I don’t think there is a generic, commonly used word for someone who refuses to do an unspecified thing for an unspecified reason. It depends on the circumstances. A few people mention “refusenik” here, I’ve heard that word but I think it’s used quite seldom and is definitely a number 2 definition, only slightly related to the primary definition. Definition 1 are Jews who were denied emigration from the Soviet Union, as @ermanen points out. Note that a denier in the original sense was not someone who refused to do something, but someone who was denied permission to do something they wanted to do. Almost the opposite.

Load crossword clue

Rank Word Note 94% ONUS load 92% STEERING load 92% LOAD load 92% SADDLE load 92% LATE load 92% YOKE load 92% WEIGHT load 92% ENCUMBER load 92% HARDSHIP load 92% DEBT load 92% LOADDOWN load 92% NEED load 92% AILMENT load 92% PULL load 92% SUPPRESS load 92% load load 33% DUMP load. 33% REFRAIN load. 31% SADDLE MULES Onerous beasts of burden? 28% BRUNT brunt

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What are the top solutions for Last? We have found 16 Answers for Burden. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings, and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the clue is ONUS. How many solutions does burden have? With crossword-solver.io you will find 16 solutions. We use historical puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues every day. How do I find a solution for Last? Our crossword search engine gives you access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters included. We found more than 16 answers for Burden.

The 4 letter crossword clue was last seen on the . We think the most likely answer is to this clue. Below are all the possible answers to this clue, sorted by rank. You can easily improve your search by specifying the number of letters in the answer.

Suffix for the crossword clue “lion”.

Rank word clue 94% ESS suffix for lion 29% IZE suffix for lion or union 3% INA suffix for “concert” 3% DOM suffix for a rank 3% PRIDE lion group 3% ERN suffix for “Northeast” 3% EEN suffix for “Hallow” 3% LEO lion sign 3% EST suffix for a superlative 3% BERTLAHR cowardly lion performer 3% ISH “Kinda” suffix 3% ASE enzyme suffix 3% AIRE suffix for billion 3% ADE suffix for “lemon” 3% LEONINE lionlike 3% IDE Chemical Suffix 3% NALA Lion “The Lion King” 3% ESE Suffix for “Vietnam” 3% ITIS Suffix for “Senior” 3% ITE Suffix for Suburb

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What are the top solutions for suffix for lion? We have found 1 Answers for Lion suffix. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings, and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the clue is ESS. How many solutions does suffix have for lion? With crossword-solver.io you will find 1 solutions. We use historical puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues every day. How do I find a solution for lion suffix? Our crossword search engine gives you access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters included. We have found more than 1 Answers for Suffix for lion.

The 3 letter crossword clue was last seen on the . We think the most likely answer is to this clue. Below are all the possible answers to this clue, sorted by rank. You can easily improve your search by specifying the number of letters in the answer.

Suffix for the crossword clue “Lemon”.

Rank Word Hint 94% ADE suffix for lemon 3% ACIDS lemon juice and vinegar, for two 3% INA suffix for “concert” 3% DOM suffix for one rank 3% ERN suffix for “northeast” 3% OSE sugar suffix 3% EEN Suffix for “Hallow” 3% EST Suffix for a superlative 3% LET Diminutive suffix 3% ISH “Kinda” suffix 3% ASE Enzyme suffix 3% AIRE Suffix for billion 3% IDE Chemical suffix 3% SEED Piece in a lemon 3% ESE suffix for “Vietnam” 3% DUD lemon 3% YOLK ingredient in lemon curd 3% ZEST lemon zest 3% ITIS suffix for “senior” 3% ITE suffix for suburb

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What are the top solutions for Lemon suffix? We have found 1 Answers for Lemon suffix. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings, and frequency of searches. The most likely answer for the hint is ADE. How many solutions does suffix have for lemon? With crossword-solver.io you will find 1 solutions. We use historical puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues every day. How do I find a solution for Lemon suffix? Our crossword search engine gives you access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters included. We found more than 1 Answers for Lemon suffix.

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military rank

A petty officer (PO) is a non-commissioned officer in many navies and earns the NATO rank designation OR-5 or OR-6. In many nations they are usually on par with a sergeant compared to other branches of the military. Often superior to a seaman and subordinate to senior non-commissioned officers such as a chief petty officer.

Petty officers are usually sailors who have served in their respective navies for at least a number of years. Petty officers represent the junior and middle tier non-commissioned officer ranks of many naval services and are generally responsible for the day-to-day supervision of the ranks under their command. They may also serve as subject matter specialists as part of their classification (military occupation).

origin [edit]

The modern corporal dates back to the age of sailing in the Royal Navy. Petty officers rank between naval officers (both commissioned and on warrant) and most enlisted seafarers. These were men with a certain claim to officer rank sufficient to distinguish them from ordinary enlisted men without elevating them to the level of naval officers. Some were warrant officers, in the literal sense of warrant officers, and like the warrant sea officers, their superiors, were usually among the ship’s company’s specialists.[1] The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the title derives from Anglo-Norman and Middle French “petit”, meaning “of small size, small, little”.[2] [3] Relative ranks in the Royal Navy, c.1810

Two of the Royal Navy’s NCOs, Midshipman and Master’s Mate, were senior NCOs with a more general authority, but they remained no more than deckhands. However, it was entirely possible for a warrant officer (like the armourer) in his role as superior to be court-martialled for hitting a midshipman. For the midshipman was considered a future naval officer, with the all-important social distinction of having the right to walk on the quarterdeck. Midshipmen wore distinctive uniforms, master’s mates respectably dressed, and both behaved like officers. The captain’s mate rating evolved to the rank of sub-lieutenant, and the midshipman evolved to naval cadet.

Use in the Navy[edit]

Canada[ edit ]

There are two non-commissioned officer ranks in the Royal Canadian Navy. Petty Officer 2nd Class (PO2) (maître de deuxième classe or m2 in French) is equivalent to a Sergeant and Petty Officer, 1st Class (PO1) (maître de première classe or m1) is equivalent to a Warrant Officer.

Petty officers are usually addressed as “Petty Officer Bloggins” or “PO Bloggins”, then “PO”. The designations “1st class” and “2nd class” are normally used only when such a distinction needs to be made, e.g. B. at a promotion parade or to distinguish two NCOs with similar names but different ranks. The NATO rank designation for “Corporal 2nd Class” is OR-6 (Corporal 2nd Class with less than 3 years of seniority is considered OR-5). The NATO rank designation for “Corporal, 1st Class” is OR-7.

India[ edit ]

A corporal is a non-commissioned officer in the Indian Navy, equivalent to NATO rank OR-6. They hold the same rank as Sub-Inspector of Police in the Indian Police Services or Sergeant in the Indian Army and Indian Air Force. Superior in rank to a senior officer, a petty officer is subordinate to a chief petty officer, as is the case in most Commonwealth navies.

A corporal has the ability to work as a leader, assume responsibility for a group of personnel and assume roles in the training and recruitment of new members of the Indian Navy.

United Kingdom[ edit ]

A Royal Navy corporal at a parade in London in 2015. Gold chevrons on the left arm represent good behavior, each for 4 years of service. After 15 years of uninterrupted service in good conduct, the individual is presented with the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal (referred to in the RN as the Long Service and Undetected Crimes Medal). It’s the medal on the far right of this NCO’s row of medals.

In the Royal Navy, the petty officer rate is above that of the leading rating and below that of the chief petty officer. It is the equivalent of Sergeant in the Royal Marines, British Army and Royal Air Force. Petty Officer is the lowest of the Senior Rating Grades. Petty officers, like all higher tariffs, wear a “fore and aft” rig.

United States[edit]

The title of corporal in the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard has three separate “classes” (in order from junior to senior: 3rd class, 2nd class, 1st class) and three senior classes (Chief Petty Officer, Senior Chief Petty). Officer, Master Chief Petty Officer). First class corporal is equivalent in salary to staff sergeant in the United States Army and Marine Corps and technical sergeant in the United States Air Force and United States Space Force. Second class corporal is equivalent in pay grade to sergeant in the United States Army, Marine Corps and Space Force and staff sergeant in the United States Air Force. Third Class Petty Officer is equivalent in pay grade to United States Army Petty Officer, United States Marine Corps Petty Officer, United States Air Force Senior Airman, and United States Space Force Specialist 4.

In the Navy, corporal third class is the youngest of the corporal ranks and therefore a seaman must demonstrate satisfactory performance at the previous rank (E-3) in the form of a positive performance review(s) from him/her superiors and passing a Examination to be promoted to PO3.

Enlisted rank consists of two components: rate (pay grade) and rating (occupational specialty). Both components are reflected in the title. A seaman in the class of corporal first class with an Aviation Machinist’s Mate rating would be an Aviation Machinist’s Mate 1st Class (abbreviated “AD1”). In the Navy it is acceptable to refer to a non-commissioned officer as such, while in the Coast Guard the rating is always used.

Non-English speaking countries[edit]

In some countries the same designation is used as for a non-commissioned officer (NCO) in land forces, e.g. “subofficial” in some Spanish-speaking countries. The Russian equivalent is Starshina.

See also[edit]

The petty officer can trace his title to the Old French word petit, meaning something small. Over the years, the word has also meant minor, secondary, and subordinate. In medieval and later England almost every village had several “petty”, “petty” or “petty” officers/officers reporting to such major officers as the steward of sheriff. The NCOs were the assistants to the higher officials.

The senior officers of early British warships such as Boatswain, Gunner and Carpenter also had assistants or ‘mates’. Knowing non-commissioned officers in their native villages, early sailors used the term to describe the lower-ranking officials on board their ships. The captain or captain of a ship selected his own NCOs to serve at will. At the end of a voyage, or whenever the ship’s crew was paid off and discharged, NCOs lost their positions and titles. There were petty officers in the British Navy in the 17th century and perhaps earlier, but the rank did not become official until 1808.

Petty officers have been important members of our Navy from the beginning and were also appointed by their ship’s captain. They had no uniforms or insignia of rank, and they usually only kept their appointments while serving on the ship whose captain they had chosen.

Petty officers in our Navy received their first insignia of rank in 1841 when they began to wear a sleeve device depicting an eagle perched on an anchor. Some non-commissioned officers wore the device on their left arm, others on their right. All wore the same device. Special or rating marks did not officially appear until 1866, but appear to have been in use for several years. Regulations are sometimes used to give formal status to already established practices.

In 1885 the Navy recognized three classes of non-commissioned officer – first, second and third – and by the next year had them wear rank insignia of chevrons point-down beneath a spread eagle and a rating mark. The eagle looked to the left instead of to the right as is the case today.

Today’s NCO insignia originated in 1894 when the Navy established the rank of Chief Petty Officer and bestowed upon him the three chevrons with bow and eagle. First, second, and third class NCOs also began wearing the insignia they wear today.

Rank found in some navies and maritime organizations

Petty Officer First Class (PO1) is a rank found in some navies and maritime organizations.

Canada[ edit ]

Corporal, 1st Class, PO1, is a Corporal in the Canadian Forces Navy. It is senior in the rank of Petty Officer 2nd-Class and its equivalents and junior of Chief Petty Officer 2nd-Class and its equivalents. Its Army and Air Force equivalent is Warrant Officer (WO).

The French form of the rank is maître de 1re classe.

The PO1’s rank insignia is a crown worn on both forearms of the service dress tunic and on slip-ons on both shoulders of other uniforms. PO1s are generally addressed first as “Petty Officer Bloggins” or “PO Bloggins” and then as “PO”, although in correspondence the full rank or abbreviation is used before the member’s name. The full designation “Unteroffizier 1st Klasse” or “PO1” in speech is generally used only when the “first class” distinction is made, e.g. B. to differentiate between members with similar names but different ranks or in promotion parades.

United States[edit]

It is the sixth ranked rank in the United States Navy[1] and US Coast Guard, ranking just above petty officer second class and just below chief petty officer. It is referred to as a non-commissioned officer, like all non-commissioned officers. It is equivalent to the rank of staff sergeant in the Army and Marine Corps and engineering sergeant in the Air Force. They are all ranked E-6, which refers to the enlisted numbering system associated with pay grades.[2]

Overview [ edit ]

In the United States Navy, each rating is officially abbreviated, e.g. B. ET for Electronics Technician, STS for Sonar Technician Submarines or FT for Fire Control Technician. It is customary to refer to the corporal by this abbreviation in all but the most formal correspondence (e.g. printing and lettering of awards). Often the sergeant is only referred to with the abbreviation without using the surname. So ET1 Jones would simply be called “ET1”. A First Class Petty Officer may be commonly referred to as PO1 when the seaman’s rating is not known, although some prefer to be called simply “Petty Officer (Last Name)”. To address a petty officer, one would say “petty officer Smith,” “Smith,” or “Sailor” (the last two forms may be used by those of equal or higher rank than the petty officer). It is unusual to address a non-commissioned officer simply as “Corporal”, in the way one might address a non-commissioned officer in the Marine Corps as “Sergeant”. Also acceptable, but archaic, would be to designate a petty officer or chief petty officer of any grade as “Mister Smith” or “Ms. Smith” to address. The use of “Ms.” or “Mister” usually refers only to Junior Commissioned Officers or Warrant Officers.

Similar to Petty Officer Second Class and Third Class, advancement to Petty Officer First Class is subject to the following conditions:

Completed a stint in rate (three years time in rate as a second-class corporal, or two years if the second-class corporal received a promotion recommendation from “early promote” (EP) at his last regular performance evaluation and the second-class corporal’s commanding officer approves a one-year waiver of time in installments).

Recommended for promotion by the commander.

Have an established performance grade point average.

No pending application for voluntary transfer to the Fleet Reserve.

The funding cycle is currently every 6 months (March and September). Only second-class non-commissioned officers who pass the biannual advancement examination can be promoted to first-class non-commissioned officer. Once the examination is complete, a quota is set based on the needs of the Navy in relation to the seafarer’s specific rating. Using the example of the classification ET (Electronics technician):

1,000 ET2 (Electronics technician 2nd class) for promotion after passing the promotion test

100 may be promoted to ET1 (electronics technician, first class) by the Navy (a 10% quota)

The 100th eligible ET2 received an overall score of 219.5, therefore 219.5 is the lowest possible overall score allowed for promotion to ET1.

The Navy’s current seniority tenure policy mandates a maximum tenure of 22 years (total active duty) for a first-class corporal. If a first-class corporal is not elected to the chief petty officer pay grade within that 22-year period, the corporal will be honorably retired from active service in the United States Navy and placed on the Fleet Reserve (inactive duty) for a period of 8 years through 10 Years. Should the seafarer not be recalled to active duty due to war or national emergency, the seafarer will transition to “retiree” status after a total of 30 years of service.

The tariff insignia for a first-class corporal is an eagle over three chevrons. On more formal uniforms (white and blue uniform), the corporal rating symbol is placed between the eagle and the chevrons. On white uniforms, the eagle, rating, and chevrons are dark blue (nearly black—this has led to common practice referring to the eagle as a “crow”, and often the entire rating badge is simply referred to as a crow). . On navy blue (black) uniforms, the eagle and rating are white and the chevrons are red, unless the sailor has served at least 12 consecutive years in the Navy with good conduct, in which case that sailor wears gold chevrons on the blue dress uniform . Gold chevrons are also worn on the collars of the navy blue jumpsuit uniform and on the black garrison cap (only) worn with the Naval Service’s work uniform (often referred to as “peanut butter” or “black and tan”). The Coast Guard does not use gold chevrons. Work uniforms (all variations of camouflage uniform) and metal rank gear do not have a rating badge icon.

Petty officers first class typically serve as a division’s senior petty officers and direct a division’s activities. There are situations where there is more than one first class corporal in a division due to the demand for highly experienced or qualified seafarers in technical areas. Senior Petty Officer experience for a first-class Petty Officer is not officially required to advance to Chief Petty Officer (E7). However, it is generally accepted that at least one documented tour as an LPO (preferably at sea) is a crucial step towards promotion.

First-rate NCOs often form unions on their orders. Membership in these clubs is voluntary. On larger ships and some Shore Commands, PO1s may have their own mess, although unlike the CPO mess and mess, which have their own galleys and cooks, the first-rate “mess” is merely a separate compartment for meals from the general crew mess.

Petty Officers (E4-E6) have dual roles as technical experts and leaders. Unlike the sailors among them, there is no such thing as an “undesigned corporal.” Each NCO has both a rate (rank) and rating (job, similar to a Military Occupation Specialty (MOS) in other services). The full title of corporal is a combination of both. Thus, a first class corporal who has electronics technician rating would more correctly be referred to as an electronics technician first class or ET1. The term “corporal” is usually only used in the general sense when referring to a group of non-commissioned officers of varying ratings, when the non-commissioned officer’s rating is unknown, or when someone of E-3 or lower is addressing a non-commissioned officer with basic training or A school .

Badges [ edit ]

See also[edit]

Below are possible solutions for the crossword clue Soccer zero.

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Old Old Crossword Question

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What are the top solutions for old crone? We have found 1 Answers for Old Crone. The top solutions are determined by popularity, ratings and search frequency. The most likely answer for the clue is HAG. How many solutions does Old Crone have? With crossword-solver.io you will find 1 solutions. We use historical puzzles to find the best matches for your question. We add many new clues every day. How do I find a solution for old woman? Our crossword search engine gives you access to over 7 million clues. You can narrow down the possible answers by specifying the number of letters included. We found more than 1 Answers for Old Crone.

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American jazz singer (1917–1996)

Ella Jane Fitzgerald (April 25, 1917 – June 15, 1996) was an American jazz singer, sometimes referred to as the “First Lady of Song”, “Queen of Jazz” and “Lady Ella”. She was known for her purity of tone, impeccable diction, phrasing, timing, intonation, and a “horn-like” ability to improvise, particularly in her scat singing.

After a turbulent youth, Fitzgerald found stability in musical success with the Chick Webb Orchestra, which performed across the country but was mostly associated with Harlem’s Savoy Ballroom. Her rendition of the nursery rhyme “A-Tisket, A-Tasket” helped bring both her and Webb to national fame. After Fitzgerald took over the band when Webb died, she left them in 1942 to begin her solo career. Her manager was Moe Gale, co-founder of The Savoy,[1] until she handed the rest of her career over to Norman Granz, who founded Verve Records to produce new Fitzgerald records. She recorded some of her better-known works with verve, particularly her renditions of The Great American Songbook.

While Fitzgerald appeared in films and guest-starred on popular television shows throughout the latter half of the 20th century, her most notable acts outside of her solo career are her musical collaborations with Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and The Ink Spots. These partnerships spawned some of their best-known songs, such as “Dream a Little Dream of Me,” “Cheek to Cheek,” “Into Each Life Some Rain Must Fall,” and “It Don’t Mean a Thing (If It Ain’t Got That Swing)”. In 1993, after almost 60 years of career, she made her last public appearance. She died three years later at the age of 79 after years of declining health. Her accolades include 14 Grammy Awards, the National Medal of Arts, the NAACP’s first President’s Award and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Early life[edit]

Fitzgerald was born on April 25, 1917 in Newport News, Virginia.[2] She was the daughter of William Fitzgerald and Temperance “Tempie” Henry, both of whom were described as “mulatto” in the 1920 census. Her parents were unmarried but lived together in the East End section of Newport News for at least two and a half years after her birth [4]. In the early 1920s, Fitzgerald’s mother and her new partner, a Portuguese immigrant named Joseph da Silva, moved to Yonkers in Westchester County, New York. Her half-sister Frances da Silva, with whom she was close all her life, was born in 1923. By 1925, Fitzgerald and her family had moved to nearby School Street, a poor Italian neighborhood. She began her formal education at the age of six and was a brilliant student, graduating from various schools before entering Benjamin Franklin Junior High School in 1929.

By the third grade, Fitzgerald loved dancing and admired Earl Snakehip’s tucker. She performed for her peers on the way to school and at lunchtime. She and her family were Methodists and were active in the Bethany African Methodist Episcopal Church, where she attended church services, Bible studies, and Sunday school. The church provided Fitzgerald with her earliest musical experiences.

Fitzgerald listened to jazz recordings by Louis Armstrong, Bing Crosby and The Boswell Sisters. She was fond of Boswell Sisters singer Connee Boswell and later said, “My mother brought home one of her records and I fell in love with her… I tried so hard to sound just like her.” [9]

In 1932, when Fitzgerald was 15 years old, her mother died as a result of injuries sustained in a car accident.[10] Her stepfather took care of her until April 1933, when she moved to Harlem to live with her aunt. This seemingly rapid change in her circumstances, compounded by what Fitzgerald biographer Stuart Nicholson describes as rumors of “mistreatment” by her stepfather, leads him to speculate that Da Silva may have abused her.

Fitzgerald began skipping school and her grades suffered as a result. She worked as a lookout at a brothel and for a mafia-affiliated number runner.[12] She never spoke publicly about this period in her life.[13] When authorities caught up with her, she was taken to the Colored Orphan Asylum in Riverdale, Bronx.[14] When the orphanage proved to be overcrowded, she was transferred to the New York Training School for Girls, a state reform school in Hudson, New York.[14]

Early career[edit]

While she appears to have survived 1933 and 1934 in part by singing the streets of Harlem, Fitzgerald made her major debut at age 17 on November 21, 1934, on one of the earliest amateur nights at the Apollo Theater. 15][16] She had intended to get on stage and dance, but was intimidated by a local dance duo called the Edwards Sisters and chose to sing instead. In the style of Connee Boswell, she sang “Judy” and “The Object of My Affection” and won first prize.[18] She won the chance to perform at the Apollo for a week, but apparently because of her disheveled appearance, the theater never gave her that part of their award.

In January 1935, Fitzgerald won the chance to perform with the Tiny Bradshaw Band at the Harlem Opera House for a week.[15] She was introduced to drummer and band leader Chick Webb, who had asked his recently signed singer, Charlie Linton, to help him find a female singer. Although Webb “was reluctant to sign her … because she was lanky and unkempt, a ‘diamond in the rough’,”[9] he offered her an opportunity to test himself with his band when they played a dance at Yale University . fifteen]

Met with approval by both audiences and fellow musicians, Fitzgerald was asked to join Webb’s orchestra and earned acclaim as part of the group’s performances at Harlem’s Savoy Ballroom. Fitzgerald recorded several hits, including “Love and Kisses” and “(If You Can’t Sing It) You’ll Have to Swing It (Mr. Paganini)”.[15] But it was her 1938 version of the nursery rhyme “A-Tisket, A-Tasket,” a song she co-wrote, that earned her public acclaim. “A-Tisket, A-Tasket” became a huge hit on radio and was also one of the best-selling records of the decade.

Webb died of spinal tuberculosis on June 16, 1939, and his band was renamed the Ella and Her Famous Orchestra, with Fitzgerald taking on the role of bandleader. She recorded nearly 150 songs with Webb’s orchestra between 1935 and 1942. In addition to her work with Webb, Fitzgerald has performed and recorded with the Benny Goodman Orchestra. She also had her own side project known as Ella Fitzgerald and Her Savoy Eight.

Decca years [ edit ]

In 1942, with growing dissent and money worries in Fitzgerald’s band Ella and Her Famous Orchestra, she began working as lead singer with The Three Keys, and in July her band played their final concert at the Earl Theater in Philadelphia. 25] While working for Decca Records, she had hits with Bill Kenny & the Ink Spots,[26] Louis Jordan,[27] and the Delta Rhythm Boys[28]. Producer Norman Granz became her manager in the mid-1940s after she began singing for Jazz at the Philharmonic, a concert series Granz initiated.

With the decline of the swing era and the demise of the big touring bands came a major shift in jazz music. The advent of bebop led to new developments in Fitzgerald’s singing style, influenced by her work with Dizzy Gillespie’s big band. It was during this period that Fitzgerald began incorporating scat singing as a major part of her repertoire for performances. While singing with Gillespie, Fitzgerald recalled, “I was just trying to do [with my voice] what I heard the horns in the band do.”[18]

Her 1945 scat recording of “Flying Home,” arranged by Vic Schoen, was later described by The New York Times as “one of the most influential vocal-jazz records of the decade…where other singers, most notably Louis Armstrong, had attempted similar improvisation, no one before Miss Fitzgerald had used the technique with such dazzling ingenuity.”[9] Her bebop recording of Oh, Lady Be Good! (1947) was similarly popular, cementing her reputation as one of the leading female jazz singers.[29]

Swinging years[ edit ]

Ella Fitzgerald at Paul Masson Winery, Saratoga, California in 1986

Fitzgerald made her first tour of Australia in July 1954 for Australian-based American promoter Lee Gordon. This was the first of Gordon’s famous “Big Show” promotions and the “Package” tour also included Buddy Rich, Artie Shaw and comedian Jerry Colonna.

Although the tour was a huge hit with audiences and set a new box office record for Australia, it was marred by an incident of racial discrimination which resulted in Fitzgerald missing the first two concerts in Sydney and Gordon having to arrange two subsequent free concerts to compensate ticket holders. Although the four members of Fitzgerald’s entourage – Fitzgerald, her pianist John Lewis, her assistant (and cousin) Georgiana Henry and manager Norman Granz – all had first-class tickets on their scheduled Pan-American Airlines flight from Honolulu to Australia, they were obligated to disembark the plane after they were already on board and were denied permission to reboard the plane to collect their luggage and clothing. As a result, they were stranded in Honolulu for three days before they could get another flight to Sydney. Although a contemporary Australian press report[31] quoted an Australian Pan-Am spokesman as denying that the incident was based on race, in December 1954 Fitzgerald, Henry, Lewis and Granz filed a civil suit alleging racial discrimination against Pan-Am[32] and In a 1970 television interview, Fitzgerald confirmed that they had won the lawsuit and received what she described as a “nice settlement.”

Fitzgerald was still performing at Granz’s Jazz at the Philharmonic (JATP) concerts in 1955. She left Decca, and Granz, now her manager, formed Verve Records around her. She later described this period as strategically crucial, saying, “I got to a point where I just sang be-bop bop. But it eventually got to the point where I had no more room to sing. That’s when I realized that music is more than bop. Norman… felt like I should be doing other things, so he produced Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Songbook with me. It was a turning point in my life.”[9]

On March 15, 1955, Ella Fitzgerald opened up about their first engagement at the Mocambo nightclub in Hollywood, [34] [35] after Marilyn Monroe courted the owner for the booking. The booking was instrumental in Fitzgerald’s career. Bonnie Greer dramatized the incident in 2008 as musical drama Marilyn and Ella. It had previously been widely reported that Fitzgerald was the first black actor to play Mocambo following Monroe’s intervention, but that is not true. African-American singers Herb Jeffries,[37] Eartha Kitt,[38] and Joyce Bryant[39] all played Mocambo in 1952 and 1953, according to reports published in Jet Magazine and Billboard at the time.

Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Song Book, published in 1956, was the first of eight songbook sets that Fitzgerald recorded at irregular intervals from 1956 to 1964 for verve of the cultural canon known as the Great American Songbook. Their song choices ranged from standards to rarities and represented an attempt by Fitzgerald to transition into a non-jazz audience. The sets are the most recognizable tracks in their discography.

Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Duke Ellington Song Book was the only song book on which the composer she performed played with her. Duke Ellington and longtime collaborator Billy Strayhorn both appeared on exactly half of the set’s 38 tracks and wrote two new pieces of music for the album: “The E and D Blues” and a four-movement musical portrait of Fitzgerald. The Song Book series eventually became the singer’s most critically acclaimed and commercially successful work, and arguably her most significant contribution to American culture. The New York Times wrote in 1996: “These albums were among the first pop records to give such serious attention to individual songwriters, and they were instrumental in establishing the pop album as a vehicle for serious musical exploration.”[9]

Days after Fitzgerald’s death, New York Times columnist Frank Rich wrote that in the Song Book series, Fitzgerald accomplished “a cultural transaction as extraordinary as Elvis’ simultaneous integration of white and African American soul.” Here was a black woman who popularized urban songs often written by immigrant Jews to a national audience of mostly white Christians.”[12] Frank Sinatra, out of respect for Fitzgerald, prohibited Capitol Records from recording his own recordings in separate albums for individual composers on the same way to republish [citation needed]

Fitzgerald also recorded albums dedicated solely to the songs of Porter and Gershwin in 1972 and 1983; the albums are Ella Loves Cole and Nice Work If You Can Get It, respectively. A later collection dedicated to a single composer was released during her time with Pablo Records, Ella Abraça Jobim, featuring the songs by Antônio Carlos Jobim.

While recording the song books and the occasional studio album, Fitzgerald toured the United States and internationally for 40 to 45 weeks a year under the tutelage of Norman Granz. Granz helped cement her position as one of the leading live jazz artists.[9] In 1961, Fitzgerald bought a house in Copenhagen’s Klampenborg district after beginning a relationship with a Danish man. Although the relationship ended after a year, Fitzgerald returned regularly to Denmark over the next three years and even considered buying a jazz club there. The house was sold in 1963 and Fitzgerald returned to the United States permanently.

Verve has several live albums that have received critical acclaim. At the Opera House features a typical Fitzgerald Jazz at the Philharmonic set. Ella in Rome and Twelve Nights in Hollywood show their vocal jazz canon. Ella in Berlin is still one of their best-selling albums; it includes a Grammy-winning performance of “Mack the Knife” in which she forgets the lyrics but improvises splendidly to compensate.

Verve Records was sold to MGM in 1960 for $3 million and in 1967 MGM failed to renew Fitzgerald’s contract. Over the next five years, she shuttled between Atlantic, Capitol and Reprise. Her material at the time represented a departure from her typical jazz repertoire. For Capitol she recorded Brighten the Corner, an album of anthems, Ella Fitzgerald’s Christmas, an album of traditional Christmas carols, Misty Blue, a country and western influenced one album, and 30 by Ella, a series of six medleys that lived up to their label commitments. During this time she had her last US chart single with a cover of Smokey Robinson’s “Get Ready”, previously a hit for the Temptations and a Top 5 hit for Rare Earth a few months later.

The surprise success of the 1972 album Jazz at Santa Monica Civic ’72 prompted Granz to start Pablo Records, his first record label since selling Verve. Fitzgerald recorded around 20 albums for the label. Ella in London, recorded live in 1974 with pianist Tommy Flanagan, guitarist Joe Pass, bassist Keter Betts and drummer Bobby Durham, was considered by many to be one of her finest works. The following year she performed again with Joe Pass at the NDR in Hamburg. Her years with Pablo Records also documented the decline in her voice. “She often used shorter, stinging phrases and her voice was harder with a wider vibrato,” wrote one biographer.[41] Plagued by health problems, Fitzgerald made her last recording in 1991 and her last public appearances in 1993.[42]

Film and TV[edit]

In her most notable film role, Fitzgerald played the role of singer Maggie Jackson in Jack Webb’s 1955 jazz film Pete Kelly’s Blues.[43] The film starred Janet Leigh and singer Peggy Lee.[44] Although she had worked in films before (she sang two songs in the 1942 Abbott and Costello film Ride ‘Em Cowboy),[45] she was “delighted” when Norman Granz negotiated the role for her, and “at the time … considered her role in the Warner Brothers film to be the greatest thing that ever happened to her.”[41] Amid the panning of the New York Times film as the film opened in August 1955, the reviewer wrote: “About five minutes ( of ninety-five) suggest the image this could have been Take the brilliant prologue… [or] take the fleeting scenes when the wonderful Ella Fitzgerald, who has been allotted a few lines of spoken word, takes the screen and the Tonspur with her powerful mobile phone fills facial features and voice.”[46]

After Pete Kelly’s Blues, she appeared in sporadic film cameos, in St. Louis Blues (1958)[47] and Let No Man Write My Epitaph (1960).[48]

She has had numerous guest appearances on television shows, singing on The Frank Sinatra Show, The Carol Burnett Show, The Andy Williams Show, The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom and alongside other greats such as Nat King Cole, Dean Martin, Mel Tormé and many others. She was also a frequent guest on The Ed Sullivan Show. Perhaps her most unusual and intriguing performance was the song “Three Little Maids” from Gilbert and Sullivan’s comic operetta The Mikado alongside Joan Sutherland and Dinah Shore in Shore’s weekly variety series in 1963. A performance at Ronnie Scott’s Jazz Club in London was filmed and shown on the BBC. Fitzgerald also had a one-off appearance alongside Sarah Vaughan and Pearl Bailey in a 1979 television special honoring Bailey. In 1980, she performed a medley of standards in a duet with Karen Carpenter on the Carpenters television special Music, Music, Music.

Fitzgerald has also appeared in television commercials, her most memorable being an ad for Memorex. In the commercials, she sang a glass-shattering note while being recorded on a Memorex cassette.[51] The tape played and the recording also broke another glass and asked “is it live or is it Memorex?” [51] She also appeared in a series of commercials for Kentucky Fried Chicken, singing and scatting to the chain’s longtime fast food slogan, “We do chicken right!”[52] Her most recent ad campaign was for American Express, in which she was photographed by Annie Leibovitz.[53]

Ella Fitzgerald Just One of Those Things is a film about her life that includes interviews with many famous singers and musicians who have worked with her and her son. It was directed by Leslie Woodhead and produced by Reggie Nadelson. It was released in the UK in 2019.[54]

Cooperations[ edit ]

Fitzgerald’s most famous collaborations were with vocal quartet Bill Kenny & the Ink Spots, trumpeter Louis Armstrong, guitarist Joe Pass, and bandleaders Count Basie and Duke Ellington.

Fitzgerald has had a number of famous jazz musicians and soloists as sidemen over the course of her long career. Trumpeters Roy Eldridge and Dizzy Gillespie, guitarist Herb Ellis, and pianists Tommy Flanagan, Oscar Peterson, Lou Levy, Paul Smith, Jimmy Rowles, and Ellis Larkins all worked with Fitzgerald primarily in small live settings.

Possibly Fitzgerald’s biggest unrealized collaboration (pop music wise) was a studio or live album with Frank Sinatra. The two only appeared on the same stage occasionally over the years, in television specials in 1958 and 1959 and again in A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim in 1967, a show which also featured Antônio Carlos Jobim. Pianist Paul Smith has said: “Ella loved working with [Frank]. Sinatra gave her his wardrobe at A Man and His Music and couldn’t do enough for her.” When asked, Norman Granz cited “complex contractual reasons” for the two artists never recording together.[41][55] Fitzgerald’s appearance with Sinatra and Count Basie in June 1974 for a series of concerts at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas was seen as a major incentive for Sinatra to come out of his self-imposed retirement in the early 1970s. The shows were a huge success, and in September 1975, in a triumvirate with the Count Basie Orchestra on Broadway, they grossed $1,000,000 in two weeks.

Sickness and death[edit]

Fitzgerald suffered from diabetes for several years later in life, which led to numerous complications.[9] In 1985 Fitzgerald was briefly hospitalized for respiratory problems,[56] in 1986 for congestive heart failure[57] and in 1990 for exhaustion[58]. In March 1990 she performed with the Count Basie Orchestra for the launch of Jazz FM at the Royal Albert Hall in London, England, as well as a gala dinner at the Grosvenor House Hotel at which she performed. In 1993 both of her legs had to be amputated below the knee because of the consequences of diabetes.[60] Her eyesight was also impaired.[9]

She died of a stroke at her home on June 15, 1996, at the age of 79.[9] A few hours after her death, the Playboy Jazz Festival opened at the Hollywood Bowl. In honor, the marquee read, “Ella, we will miss you.”[61] Her funeral was private,[61] and she was buried in Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, CA.

Personal life[edit]

Fitzgerald has married at least twice, and there is evidence that she may have married a third time. Her first marriage was in 1941 to Benny Kornegay, a convicted drug dealer and local longshoreman. The marriage was annulled in 1942. Her second marriage, in December 1947, was to famed bassist Ray Brown, whom she had met a year earlier while touring with Dizzy Gillespie’s band. Together they adopted a child from Fitzgerald’s half-sister Frances, whom they named Ray Brown Jr. With Fitzgerald and Brown often busy touring and recording, the child was largely raised by his mother’s aunt, Virginia. Fitzgerald and Brown divorced in 1953 due to the different career pressures they were both facing at the time, although they would continue to perform together.

In July 1957, Reuters reported that Fitzgerald had secretly married Thor Einar Larsen, a young Norwegian, in Oslo. She had even set up an apartment in Oslo, but the affair was quickly forgotten when Larsen was sentenced to five months hard labor in Sweden for stealing money from a young woman he was previously engaged to.

Fitzgerald was notoriously shy. Trumpeter Mario Bauzá, who played behind Fitzgerald in her early years with Chick Webb, recalled that “she didn’t hang out much. When she joined the band, she devoted herself to her music… She was a lonely New York girl, just keeping to herself when performing.” [41] When the Society of Singers later in her career named an award after her, she explained Fitzgerald: “I don’t want to say the wrong thing, which I always do, but I think I do it better when I sing.”[18]

From 1949 to 1956, Fitzgerald lived in St. Albans, New York, an enclave of wealthy African Americans, where she counted among her neighbors Illinois Jacquet, Count Basie, Lena Horne, and other jazz luminaries.[64]

Fitzgerald was a civil rights activist who used her talent to break down racial barriers across the country. She has received the Equal Justice Award from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the American Black Achievement Award.[65] In 1949 Norman Granz recruited Fitzgerald for the Jazz at the Philharmonic tour.[66] The Jazz at the Philharmonic tour would specifically target separate venues. Granz asked organizers to ensure there were no “colored” or “white” seats. He made sure that Fitzgerald should receive equal pay and housing regardless of their gender and race. If the conditions were not met, shows were canceled.[67]

Bill Reed, author of Hot from Harlem: Twelve African American Entertainers, called Fitzgerald a “civil rights crusader” who faced discrimination throughout her career. In 1954 she was unable to board the Pan-America flight en route to one of her concerts in Australia because of racial discrimination.[69] Despite facing several obstacles and racial barriers, she was recognized as a “cultural ambassador” and received the 1987 National Medal of Arts and America’s highest nonmilitary honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

In 1993, Fitzgerald established the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation, which focuses on charitable grants in four main categories: academic opportunities for children, music education, basic health needs for the less fortunate, medical research surrounding diabetes, heart disease, and visual impairment.[71 ] Its goals were Giving back and creating opportunity for those who are “vulnerable” and less fortunate. In addition, she supported several charitable organizations such as the American Heart Association, City of Hope and the Retina Foundation.[72][73][74]

Discography and collections[ edit ]

The major collections of Fitzgerald’s media and memorabilia are housed and shared by the Smithsonian Institution and the US Library of Congress [75].

Awards, Mentions, and Honors [ edit ]

Fitzgerald won 13 Grammy Awards[76] and received the 1967 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.[76]

In 1958, Fitzgerald became the first African American to win the inaugural show.[76]

Other notable awards and honors she has received throughout her career include the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts Medal of Honor Award, the National Medal of Art, the first Lifetime Achievement Award from the Society of Singers (named “Ella” in her honor) , the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, UCLA Spring Sing and the UCLA Medal (1987).[77] Across the street at the University of Southern California, she received the USC “Magnum Opus” award, which hangs in the office of the Ella Fitzgerald Charitable Foundation. In 1986 she received an honorary doctorate in music from Yale University.[78] In 1990 she received an honorary doctorate in music from Harvard University.[79]

Honors and Legacy[edit]

Career history and archival material from Fitzgerald’s long career resides in the Archives Center at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, while her personal musical arrangements are held in the Library of Congress. Her extensive cookbook collection was donated to the Schlesinger Library at Harvard University, and her extensive collection of published sheet music was donated to UCLA. Harvard awarded her an honorary degree in music in 1990.

In 1997, Newport News, Virginia, along with Christopher Newport University, established a week-long music festival to honor Fitzgerald in their native city.

Ann Hampton Callaway, Dee Dee Bridgewater, and Patti Austin have all recorded albums honoring Fitzgerald. Callaway’s album To Ella with Love (1996) features 14 jazz standards popularized by Fitzgerald, and the album also features trumpeter Wynton Marsalis. Bridgewater’s album Dear Ella (1997) featured many musicians closely associated with Fitzgerald throughout her career, including pianist Lou Levy, trumpeter Benny Powell, and Fitzgerald’s second husband, double bass player Ray Brown. Bridgewater’s next album, Live at Yoshi’s, was recorded live on April 25, 1998, on Fitzgerald’s 81st birthday.

Austin’s album For Ella (2002) contains 11 songs most directly associated with Fitzgerald, and a twelfth song, “Hearing Ella Sing”, is Austin’s tribute to Fitzgerald. The album was nominated for a Grammy. In 2007, We All Love Ella was released, a tribute album recorded for Fitzgerald’s 90th birthday. It featured artists such as Michael Bublé, Natalie Cole, Chaka Khan, Gladys Knight, Diana Krall, k.d. Lang, Queen Latifah, Ledisi, Dianne Reeves, Linda Ronstadt and Lizz Wright, who compile songs most associated with the “First Lady of Song.” Folk singer Odetta’s album To Ella (1998) is dedicated to Fitzgerald but contains no songs associated with her. Her companion Tommy Flanagan fondly remembered Fitzgerald on his album Lady be Good… For Ella (1994).

“Ella, elle l’a”, a tribute to Fitzgerald, written by Michel Berger and performed by French singer France Gall, was a hit in Europe in 1987 and 1988.[80] Fitzgerald is also referenced in the 1976 Stevie Wonder hit “Sir Duke” from his album Songs in the Key of Life and the song “I Love Being Here With You” written by Peggy Lee and Bill Schluger. Sinatras 1986er Aufnahme von „Mack the Knife“ aus seinem Album L.A. Is My Lady (1984) enthält eine Hommage an einige der früheren Interpreten des Songs, darunter „Lady Ella“ selbst. Sie wird auch in dem Song „First Lady“ der kanadischen Künstlerin Nikki Yanofsky geehrt.

Im Jahr 2008 nannte das Downing-Gross Cultural Arts Center in Newport News sein neues Theater mit 276 Plätzen Ella Fitzgerald Theatre. Das Theater befindet sich einige Blocks von ihrem Geburtsort entfernt in der Marshall Avenue. Die Darsteller der Grand Opening (11. und 12. Oktober 2008) waren Roberta Flack und Queen Esther Marrow.

Im Jahr 2012 führte Rod Stewart ein “virtuelles Duett” mit Ella Fitzgerald auf seinem Weihnachtsalbum Merry Christmas, Baby und seinem gleichnamigen Fernsehspecial auf.

In Yonkers, der Stadt, in der sie aufgewachsen ist, steht eine Bronzeskulptur von Fitzgerald, die von dem amerikanischen Künstler Vinnie Bagwell geschaffen wurde. Es befindet sich südöstlich des Haupteingangs der Amtrak/Metro-North Railroad-Station vor der alten Trolley-Scheune der Stadt. Der Standort der Statue ist einer von 14 Tourstopps auf dem African American Heritage Trail von Westchester County. Eine Büste von Fitzgerald steht auf dem Campus der Chapman University in Orange, Kalifornien. Ed Dwight schuf im Auftrag des National Park Service eine Serie von über 70 Bronzeskulpturen im St. Louis Arch Museum; die Serie “Jazz: An American Art Form” zeigt die Entwicklung des Jazz und stellt verschiedene Jazzkünstler vor, darunter Fitzgerald.[82]

Am 9. Januar 2007 gab der United States Postal Service bekannt, dass Fitzgerald mit einer eigenen Briefmarke geehrt würde.[50] Die Briefmarke wurde im April 2007 als Teil der Black Heritage-Reihe des Postdienstes herausgegeben.[83]

Im April 2013 wurde sie in Google Doodle vorgestellt und zeigte ihren Auftritt auf der Bühne. Es feierte ihren 96. Geburtstag.[84][85]

Am 25. April 2017, dem 100. Jahrestag ihrer Geburt, strahlte das britische BBC Radio 2 im Rahmen einer „Ella at 100“-Feier drei Programme aus: Ella Fitzgerald Night, eingeführt von Jamie Cullum; Erinnerung an Ella; eingeführt von Leo Green; und Ella Fitzgerald – die First Lady of Song, vorgestellt von Petula Clark.[86]

2019 wurde Ella Fitzgerald: Just One of Those Things, ein Dokumentarfilm von Leslie Woodhead, in Großbritannien veröffentlicht. Es enthielt seltenes Filmmaterial, Radiosendungen und Interviews mit Jamie Cullum, Andre Previn, Johnny Mathis und anderen Musikern sowie ein langes Interview mit Fitzgeralds Sohn Ray Brown Jr.[54]

References[edit]

Sources[edit]

Further Reading[edit]