U Shaped Bamboo Canes? The 13 New Answer

I know exactly how it feels when your precious bamboo plants droop after a few months or years. It gets so frustrating and you keep wondering if this is normal.

Bamboo hangs for many reasons. Certain bamboo species like Phyllostachys nigra have a habit of leaning forward when they get new growth. Some bend over to find light, and others grow in too tight a space.

How exactly can you help your plant get back to that amazingly established look you’ve always admired? When this happens to your plant, it needs human help to get going again. In this post I will share some reasons why your bamboo is leaning forward and how to straighten it up again.

Why does bamboo sag?

Bamboo plants start to droop due to a rapid growth spurt or lack of care. Bamboo with thin canes, which are smaller in diameter, tend to sag more.

This is common with bamboo, which produces a lot of foliage. The thin culms are weighed down by their leaves. You will find this in species that have smaller culms, like some Fargesia species. It gets even worse at certain times of the year when the weight of rain or snow can put even more strain on the flimsy sticks.

Bamboo plants with really big leaves will bend at the slightest downpour or snow. Bamboo groves that have fewer gaps between culms collect more snow on their foliage and eventually bow.

In addition, bamboo in the shade tends to droop in search of light. In non-shade tolerant species, this is an unavoidable circumstance. For example, species like black bamboo and Phyllostachys bissetii tend to stoop when grown in low light conditions.

If you’re growing bamboo in a confined space, you may also have to deal with drooping stalks from time to time.

Is that normal? Will my bamboo plant stand upright again?

Yes, your bamboo is still fine as long as the stems are not broken. There are several ways to support your plant and get it straight again. You can still manage to have that amazing look that you always enjoyed.

Many bamboo growers wonder if their bamboo is normal or if they bought the wrong bamboo seeds as soon as they find their plant is weeping. This is nothing to worry about. You can easily remove your plants from that driveway or path.

If this is your first time dealing with sagging bamboo, read to the end of this article to learn how to prevent your bamboo from leaning.

How to stop bamboo from leaning

Bamboo bending over is a sign that it needs extra support. Most people wonder if they are harming their plants by doing any kind of extra actions. As long as you follow my guide, your plant will be happier and healthier than ever. Below I will mention some methods to prevent bamboo from drooping without hurting it.

If your bamboo is weeping and getting caught in the driveway or obscuring other plants, it’s a good idea to support them and use one of these techniques to keep them upright.

Tie the stalks to stakes

If you have a few culms that bend over, it’s a good idea to tie the sticks to stakes to keep them straight. You can use metal or wooden sticks for this.

Tie your bamboo to the stake. Be sure to attach the entire group of straws. Leave your plant like this for a few months and your culms will come out well.

Attach the crooked culms to other upright culms

You can tie the entire bamboo groove into a bundle. This is a very easy way to help your plants stay upright. The culms support each other and stand upright. You need a very strong chord. It could be an electrical copper wire or a rope.

Make sure the loop is long enough to encircle the entire grove. Make sure you fasten them securely, but be careful not to tie the sticks too tight. Free the branches when they are bound by the wire to make your plant look natural as if it were unbound.

This is a great option for you if you have bamboo species that bend on driveways. You can easily erase your paths completely.

Man with scissors chopping a bamboo

Prune the tops of your plants

To prevent your bamboo from becoming top-heavy, you can trim the top of your plant. Most bamboo plants lean forward because the top part is too heavy.

Trimming the tall shoots will not harm your plants. If you find weaker culms in the groove that are being shaded by new culms, you can cut them off completely to let in more air and light.

Learn more about trimming and pruning bamboo here!

This will prevent bamboo from bending forward

As I mentioned before, bamboo plants sometimes bend for a variety of reasons. It is therefore important that you do everything right from the start.

Make sure you plant the right bamboo for your area or try as much as possible to create the perfect conditions for your bamboo. If you have sun-loving bamboo, make sure it gets at least 8 hours of sunlight each day.

If you’re experiencing extreme weather conditions like a harsh winter and your bamboo isn’t hardy, there are a few different ways you can go about dealing with it. Cover them with bubble wrap if they’re buried bamboo, or bring them indoors if you’ve planted them in pots.

Avoid planting bamboo in too narrow places, it will eventually bend forward. Your plants should have enough space to grow tall and wide.

If your bamboo is already growing in a confined space, consider pruning and trimming it occasionally. Remove dead canes and cut out old ones as new growth appears. You want to remove as much as possible.

Fertilizing your plant is a good idea, but don’t overdo it. You don’t want to weigh down your culms with giant greens.

Have you ever looked at hanging bamboo? Which method did you use? Share your experiences in the comments!

Related Articles

Whether you’re just starting out, waiting or troubleshooting, you’ll find advice and answers for all your gardening needs right here.

Although you don’t have to worry about damaging your bamboo no matter how you cut it, you must consider where on the cane you make your cut for aesthetic reasons. Pick a joint on the stem and cut just above it, as anything left above a notch will wither and die back to that notch. If you simply cut the canes down to the ground to get rid of bamboo or for annual pruning, this is not a problem.

I run a business called Burton’s Bamboo Garden so as you can imagine I know a lot about bamboo and I get a lot of questions from customers about it. Today I want to talk about the basics of this amazing plant.

There are three types of bamboo: runners (monopodial), hardy clumps, and tropical clumps (sympodial). Runners are temperate, hardy clumps are from the high-altitude Himalayan mountains of Asia, and tropical clumps are from a very warm zone 10+ climate. It’s probably not the first thing that comes to mind, but it’s very important to know which USDA zone you’re in when planting bamboo.

Most of the country can only grow monopodial (running) bamboo because the winter weather is too cold. Only a small portion of the US offers warmth in winter where the tropics thrive. The higher the USDA zone number, the warmer it is in winter. Therefore, some tropical clumping bamboos will grow in Miami because they have a warmer winter than Orlando. New Orleans will be muggy in the summer but can be cold in the winter. Most of the United States is too cold in winter and too hot in summer to grow hardy clumps, and only a small area offers the altitude of cool, misty conditions they need. However, if planted in cool, filtered sunlight, the hardy clumping bamboo should thrive. Mother Nature’s message to almost all plants is “grow, spread and increase”. Bamboo is no different. Thus it sleeps in the first year while it establishes, crawls in the second year, and jumps in the third year. “Sleep, crawl, jump” is a nice mnemonic to remember.

Runners will begin their skyward growth in March and will reach full height within 45-60 days, never growing another inch taller or larger in diameter in their lifetime. Then the rhizomes (roots) begin to grow outward toward the warm sunlight. Just like other plants, bamboo gets its energy from photosynthesis through its leaves. It goes dormant and stops growing when it gets cold.

Some Phyllostachys survive in cold climates but never reach their full height. That only happens in a warmer zone. They become small-diameter perennials in cold temperatures and towering specimens in a warm climate. This happens in part because some bamboo species don’t tolerate winter winds as well as others. Winter winds can be very damaging to bamboo, so the more winter wind protection you can provide, the better the grove will look in spring.

When bamboo awakens from its dormant state, it quickly begins photosynthesis when the leaves are sheltered and green. The new shoots should be larger than the new shoots of the previous year. In Ohio, where I am, two out of five winters are generally harsh, so there’s ebb and flow, harsh and mild, or yin and yang. Sometimes this means that in spring your bamboo will have brown leaves that make photosynthesis difficult. Because of this, hives are small in Ohio but large in Georgia where winters are warmer.

I know that many people find bamboo very annoying and want to destroy it. If neglected, it can become unruly and annoying. However, once you realize that it is a plant like any other living thing, it is wonderful. By carefully controlling its proliferation, trimming the dead canes and pruning the roots, and giving it fresh clay soil to grow, it becomes a beauty.

Jerry Burton is the man behind Burton’s Bamboo Garden. Since 1978 he has grown 50 species of bamboo on 22 hectares of land (including a 7 hectare lake!). He conducts educational events in a large haiku house surrounded by large bamboo groves and overlooking the lake. Exotic birds from Papua New Guinea (cassowries), Argentina (rheas), Australia (emu), India (peacocks) and China (phoenix hens) also live on the grounds, along with large granite statues from the Yangtze River area in China. He has spent all 27 years in the bamboo business learning and has a special knack for birds and plants. His philosophy is, “If they show up, sell them. If not, read a book because you’ll be home anyway.” His son, Zach, will inherit the business.

When the seasons change and the trees lose their leaves, it’s time to prepare ourselves and our plants for the cold weather. It’s time to bring in the harvest and cut back the flower beds. If you live in a frost-prone climate, you need to be prepared for snow and ice. But what should you expect when you have bamboo in your garden? And what can you do to make your bamboo happier through the winter?

Bamboos of the subfamily Bambusoideae are perennial evergreen plants belonging to the grass family, Poaceae. As such, they will not die back in winter like an annual plant, or shed their leaves in winter like a deciduous plant. In general, most running bamboos are more cold hardy and can easily survive prolonged freezes and temperatures well below 0°F. However, most clubbamboos tend to be tropical or subtropical and are far more susceptible to frost damage. As winter approaches, insulating the roots of a bamboo plant with a layer of mulch helps.

Bamboo and evergreen winter plants

Unlike most deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in the fall and become bare in the winter, bamboo plants are generally evergreen. It helps to be aware of this when planning your garden so you know what it will look like in winter. But there are a handful of exceptions, like Arundinaria appalachiana, a temperate bamboo endemic to the southeastern United States.

It’s usually a good idea to mix deciduous and evergreen plants so you still have an even distribution of greenery even in the depths of winter.

When we think of evergreens, we usually think of coniferous trees like pine and fir. Most other trees and shrubs tend to lose their leaves, especially in climates that typically have snow and ice. So, bamboo is a great way to keep the garden looking alive while the other plants shed their foliage.

Boxwood, or Buxus, is another shrub whose small, rigid leaves remain green throughout the winter. This evergreen quality is part of what makes bamboo and boxwood such popular choices as hedges or privacy screens. There’s not much point in having a privacy screen that only provides privacy for about half the year. And most conifers are not dense and compact enough to serve as a hedge, with the exception of the yew.

Tropical vs Temperate Bamboo

Before you get too excited about planting all kinds of evergreen bamboo in your New England garden, it’s important to know a few things about bamboo. While there is a wide range of cold hardy bamboo species that can tolerate temperatures as low as 15 or 20 degrees below zero, many bamboo species prefer truly tropical or subtropical conditions.

These warm-weather bamboos are unlikely to survive a freezing winter with several feet of snow. Otherwise there is a good chance that their leaves will fall off and their culms will suffer serious frost damage. Underground, in the robust rhizome network, bamboo is most likely to retain its vitality.

So you have to avoid the true tropical varieties like those of the genus Dendrocalamus or Gigantochloa. But if temperatures rarely drop below 20º F, you can probably get away with growing certain subtropical Bambusa cultivars.

Most of the clumping bamboo species belong to these tropical and subtropical genera. However, there are some genera of clumping bamboo that are extremely cold hardy. Take a look at the Fargesia genus if that is a clumping, cold hardy, evergreen bamboo you are looking for. They can usually survive temperatures as low as minus 20°C.

But if you’re in the market for a fast-spreading bamboo or stolon, you won’t have trouble finding a variety that’s both evergreen and cold-tolerant. The Phyllostachys genus offers the best selection, including a range of cold-hardy woody bamboos.

See our article on cold hardy bamboo for snowy climates for a more detailed listing of frost tolerant species.

When bamboo loses its leaves

An unusually cold winter can cause some bamboo species to lose their leaves, particularly the subtropical varieties. If temperatures drop below the plant’s hardiness, you should expect some damage. For example, during the unforgettable February 2021 storm, many growers in Texas saw their hardy bamboo suffer unprecedented frost damage.

This damage usually consists of the leaves falling off and some of the more tender culms dying. But even when the whole plant seems to be dying, there is often more than a spark of life glowing underground in the roots. It may take a year or two to recover and look good, but simply cut out all of the deadwood and give the bamboo some time to work its magic.

Bamboo usually loses its leaves in spring. This may surprise or alarm some gardeners, but it is perfectly natural. Like most plants, bamboo produces fresh growth in spring. However, since it is an evergreen plant, the new growth will come when the old leaves are still there. What happens is that the old leaves fall off to make room for the new ones. And as the old leaves gather on the ground, they form a light layer of healthy, helpful mulch.

Get your bamboo ready for the winter

Like most living things, bamboo likes to bundle up in winter. The easiest and most effective way to protect your bamboo through the frosty months is with a fluffy layer of mulch.

Mulch can come in a variety of forms, but I generally rely on what’s available in the area. If you live in cultivated land, chances are you have enough organic waste to mulch your bamboo. Dried grass and leaves are helpful, but heavier materials like bark and wood chips provide better insulation. And as the mulch breaks down, it actually helps build up the topsoil with more topsoil.

A few inches of mulch is usually good for most bamboo species. Smaller plants with thinner stems only need a few centimeters, otherwise the new shoots will have a hard time growing through. Tallwood bamboo can handle 5 or 6 inches of mulch without stifling its fresh growth.

Learn more

If you found this article about bamboo winter habits useful and informative, please feel free to share it with your friends. You might also be interested in some of our other in-depth articles on bamboo care and cultivation.

I spoke to someone last night about this magical moment when gardens seem to be on the brink of collapse or anarchy. Sometimes this stage can last for years, but often it only takes weeks or months before it inexorably descends into collapse. Trying to nurture and nurture that feeling of growing away from the garden and the gardener’s hand is an essential part of gardener skill, I think. The best gardens always seem to have a sense of concentrated energy, as if their compulsions were only partly to do with daily tending, and beneath the veneer of order every hedge is poised to become a thicket, every lawn a meadow, and so on Rose, properly trained against the brickwork, will emerge from this straitjacket to become a window-lashing, unhindered monster.

There is a clear progression in my own garden. Between October and March, almost total neglect can be completely sorted out in a weekend. The harsh experience between April and October has shown that two weeks of neglect improves the place enormously, making it more shaggy, softer and more interesting, much like a face that its age has heaped with dignity.

A few years ago I spent a week watching a TV show in Penjerrick, near Falmouth in Cornwall. This is one of the three major Cornish gardens established by the Fox family in the 19th century, but while the other two, Glendurgan and Trebah, are run with a high level of sensitive care, Penjerrick did not have the same resources or inclinations and , five was comparatively wild at least years ago. The result was a glorious wilderness teeming with plants, and I spent the week exploring the undergrowth, which somehow still remained a garden for all its tangled chaos. Our reason for being there was to clear some of it to restore an avenue of tree ferns. It was a garden of overwhelming beauty and the three things that struck me the most were the huge magnolias in bloom, the huge laurel trees that covered the sides of the valley and the fantastic bamboos that grew in the valley below.

There is no other plant that has the potential for such latent, tortuous growth as bamboo. Leylandii promise a kind of relentlessness and willow hybrids can grow inches a day, but there’s a feeling these are exceptions. Bamboos have an entire culture of spectacular, voracious growth that belongs firmly in the jungle.

Of course it’s stupid to overplay this hand. Phyllostachys edulis can grow quite large and the sasas, although all dwarf bamboo, will spread sideways with alarming tenacity, but very few bamboos outgrow their welcome to a British garden. I have cared for a P nigra for seven years, trying to get it to the point where I have to prune it back, but, to paraphrase Arthur Hugh Clough, it makes little effort to stay alive. It didn’t help that I moved them four times, but they are sensitive to lack of water and too much wind. Chusquea culeou tolerates more drought than most, as do some Sasas, but check carefully before planting bamboo in dry soil.

P nigra is very trendy – rightly so, because the black polished straws are extraordinary. (Culm? The bamboo word for stick. It means the articulated blade of a grass, and since bamboos are grasses you can see the derivation.) But it can look really sad when, like mine, it gets distressed and its leaves and the leaves fall makes stalks fade to gray. I bought a P aureosulcata the same day and the buttery, golden culms shine as brightly as anything else in the February garden. This is their season – in mid-spring they fade, and in summer they merge into a common background. In this way, bamboo works well in a mixed border, using the culms for color when there isn’t much else around, and as protection for the eye and the plants in their lee for the rest of the year. Other culm colors are a gold with a thin green streak, P vivax ‘Aureocaulis’; olive green, P sulphurea ‘Sulphurea’; a striped mix of gold and green like medieval Florentine tights, Himalayacalamus falconeri ‘Damarapa’; and the bluish green of Thamnocalamus crassinodus ‘Kew Beauty’.

Growing Bamboos

Bamboos like moist but not wet soil and a sunny, wind-protected location. Arundinaria japonica, on the other hand, copes easily with wind and also makes the best garden rods. Each bamboo will make a kind of cane. They are best pruned in late summer when they are two to three years old and left to dry flat on a trellis over the winter.

Some of the Chimonobambusa and all Sasa species tolerate much more shade than most bamboo species. Most are hardy; a selection of Phyllostachys, Fargesia and Pleioblastus species are hardier than most; But all bamboo species grow faster and stronger in high temperatures as long as moisture levels are maintained.

All bamboos bloom very rarely, but surprisingly at precisely regulated times – even during the day. Sometimes all the bamboos of a certain species around the world bloom at the same moment. When a bamboo blooms, most of the leaves are replaced by flowers, transpiration stops, the plant lives on reserves, and then all the culms die. Since the rhizomes appear to be an extension of the stems, they often die off as well and the plant withers. But sometimes, a few years later, new shoots emerge from the energy stored in the rhizomes. Flowering always takes place on healthy, vigorous plants. There are therefore no “old” bamboos, although most have extremely long lifespans – sometimes hundreds of years.

Bamboos grow in containers but are much happier in the ground. Plant them as soon as you can prepare the soil in early spring. Always plant slightly deeper than the pot you bought them in, soak them thoroughly and mulch thickly with compost or bark. If the plant is large it will need staking for the first few years – keep each bamboo well watered during this growing season. Bamboos respond to a mulch of manure or garden compost. Water them regularly until they reach the desired size.

Most bamboos hate algae, so do not use them as fertilizer in any form.

Cut old culms at the base, but do so sparingly, as the starch stored in mature culms will feed vigorous new growth in spring. If you cut away too much, the new stalks will be shorter and thinner. As a general rule, you should never remove more than a third of the plant in a year. The best time for pruning is late summer.

Bamboos are sensitive to fire, so a flame gun is effective in controlling invasive species as long as there aren’t any neighboring plants you want to keep.

Most bamboos can be moved fairly easily (chusqueas are an exception), but do so when the soil is moist and warm – late spring and early fall.

[email protected]

Last updated: Friday 14 June 2019, Created: Sunday 8 February 2004

BAMBOO FLOOR – LOSE PREFERRED

Bamboo floors are beautiful and reasonably durable — but they’re falling out of favor.

From an ecological point of view, bamboo is a sustainable resource because it is a very fast-growing grass, so producing bamboo on a piece of land is far more profitable than growing trees on the same land. However, this has led to secondary ecological problems as many groups are now criticizing bamboo from China because China is converting large tracts of good farmland from food production to the more profitable bamboo production to provide bamboo soil for the western world. Add to that the fuel cost of shipping bamboo from China, and it won’t be as green a product if it’s sourced from China, where most of it comes from. There are also many adhesives in bamboo floors, often formaldehyde, which will remove from most hardwood floors.

In North America, installers are retiring from bamboo because it’s not as hard as hardwood and tends to wear down in high-traffic areas. Secondly, it gets into trouble in houses with large fluctuations in humidity from summer to winter. As a result, there are more consumer complaints about hardwood products. But here too, as with many things, there are many types of bamboo and significant differences in hardness and thus scratch and dent resistance. Although it’s difficult to find the specialty flooring stores, bamboo flooring is easy to find in the specialty stores – but not much information is available about its quality.

On the ecological side, look for bamboo that bears the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) label, which certifies good harvesting and manufacturing practices.

Therefore, in a kitchen or bathroom where spills are common, a bamboo floor is probably not a good idea. When used in environments where the humidity is constant all year round and foot traffic is limited or, as in Asia, people always walk barefoot or with slippers, it can create a beautiful functional floor.

WORKING WITH NATURALLY ROUND BAMBOO

Despite its hardness, bamboo is not wood, but belongs to the grass family. Its rapid growth, variety of sizes, length, and great strength make it one of the most widely used building materials in the world. But you have to understand it if you want to work with it. Today you can buy natural bamboo at garden centers or even T&G flooring at flooring stores.

Bamboo usually grows in very humid climates, like the tropical jungle, and I was totally amazed when I had the opportunity to walk through a bamboo forest in Japan for the first time. The bamboo grew very tall, reaching out for some sunshine but spreading leaves at the top that completely killed off all other growth below. When the leaves have lost the sun to the higher-lying newer growth, they fall to the ground, forming a thick flat mat on the forest floor. Nothing grows there except mushrooms.

When you bring bamboo into our arid climate it tends to split like crazy and sometimes literally explode when it dries up. You can avoid this split by understanding what is causing it. Bamboo grows with large hollow sections separated by full membranes where the leaves grow. As the bamboo’s outer shell begins to shrink, the dry dead membrane inside prevents it from simply forming a smaller tube, creating tension that pulls the tube around the membranes until they split. It is usually so stressed that if it snaps it can split the length of the bamboo with a loud crack. If you get a full round bamboo that hasn’t snapped yet and you break out those membranes with a long stick, I use concrete sticks, the bamboo stays intact. This can be important if you want to use it to carry water in the garden.

If you want half a bamboo for a trough instead of a pipe, don’t try to cut it. Instead, use the natural dividing lines. You can stick the side of a chisel in a slot and drive it down the length of the bamboo with a hammer. Where it came from, they used a machete and forced it through both sides at the same time.

If you drive a screw into bamboo, the ejection pressure of the screw shank is likely to split it along its length. Even if you drill a through hole first, the bevel can be enough to split the bamboo when tightening a pan head screw. To screw bamboo successfully, you should countersink the screw hole and use a button head screw, like a sheet metal screw, that presses flat on the bamboo and doesn’t try to push the fibers apart. Yes, you must take extra precautions when attempting to nail tongue and groove bamboo planks as it is all too easy to chip the tongue while nailing. Best is to either pre-drill for the nails or use blunt nails in an electric nailer that will punch a hole through the bamboo rather than trying to sneak in between the fibers.

Successful work with bamboo revolves around the realization that it is extremely hard, extremely strong along the fibres, and very easy to split between the fibres.

Use tall, straight sticks for craft projects. Credit: blew_i/iStock/GettyImages See more photos

Cut, dried bamboo canes work well when making furniture or doing craft projects. They also work well in the garden as stakes or trellis for climbing vines or vegetables like beans or tomatoes. If you have clumps of bamboo growing in your yard as a privacy hedge, feel free to thin them out. Both types of bamboo – clump and running – produce tall canes with foliage at the top. It’s not difficult to harvest the canes and dry them for projects.

advertisement

video of the day

All About Bamboo

Bamboo is a remarkable plant. It’s an evergreen that grows fast – extremely fast. Some of the larger bamboo species shoot up over a meter a day. There are more than 1,000 bamboo species belonging to 91 genera. They are scattered across most of the world’s continents, from the cold mountain peaks of Tibet to the deserts of Africa.

advertisement

The choice of bamboo plant shapes and sizes is enormous. Some bamboos are smaller than your thumb, while others grow to more than 100 feet tall and 8 inches in diameter. The sticks are called culms. They are usually green, but some are black and others are striped, giving them higher ornamental value in landscaping and also in crafts.

advertisement

Cutting bamboo stems

If you decide to harvest bamboo for gardening or craft projects, your first step is to select likely culms. It is best to choose those that are mature – at least 5 years old. Unless you have specific needs, choose the taller, straight sticks. They are widest at the base and taper towards the top, giving you a variety of diameter options with a tall cane.

advertisement

The type of tool you need to fell bamboo depends on the size of the culm. For smaller, slender sticks, use secateurs. For larger culms you will need a fine-toothed handsaw or even a chainsaw. Make the cut level. When you’ve felled a stalk, use pruning shears to remove the branches. Unless your plan for the bamboo calls for long lengths, the sticks will be more manageable if you cut them into 4 or 5 foot sections before curing them.

advertisement

Dry bamboo sticks

Curing bamboo is simply a drying process. You can use heat to achieve this, but unless you have experience and an acetylene torch it is easier and safer to air harden the sticks.

advertisement

To air dry the bamboo, you’ll need a few sawhorses and a covered, shaded outdoor area to set them up. Organize the sawhorses so that you can place the cut culm segments over them. You don’t want them to touch the ground at all. Alternatively, use a rack for drying firewood.

advertisement

You don’t want the bamboo canes splitting as they dry. To prevent this, wrap fine wire around the two ends of each segment, 1 inch or less from the cut ends. Twist the wire until it is tight. Packed in this way, the bamboo canes will not break or splinter.

After a week, return to the bamboo and rotate each stick a quarter turn. Do this once a week for several months or until the bamboo has hardened. You’ll know when it’s ready for craft use as all green disappears and the culms turn brown.

Disclosure: We may receive commissions for purchases made through links in this post.

Bamboo fences have become a popular choice for homeowners in recent years. It is very attractive, cheaper than wood and a very sustainable natural material. But many people in the fencing market often wonder: How long will a bamboo fence last? We researched the durability of bamboo fences to get the answer for you.

When well cared for, properly maintained and professionally installed, a bamboo fence can last up to 15-20 years. Untreated bamboo typically only lasts 2-7 years, even in ideal conditions, so it’s worth taking the time to take care of your new fence. If you’ve been thinking about buying a bamboo fence, that’s good news for you!

A bamboo fence has many benefits, but there are also some things to consider when shopping. Is it strong and durable? What products should be used on it? How can you keep your bamboo fence looking new and beautiful for as long as possible? Please read on as we dive into the characteristics of bamboo and all the methods of maintaining a bamboo fence.

How long does it take for bamboo to rot?

The answer to that depends on the installation and maintenance of your bamboo fence and the environmental conditions. Natural, untreated bamboo will begin to rot within a maximum of 2 years, while properly treated and cared for bamboo can last up to 20 years.

Prolonged exposure to moisture and moisture will lead to mold and accelerate decay and decomposition. For this reason, many manufacturers recommend that your bamboo fence should not come into contact with soil. When installing, allow a few inches under the bottom of your fence to keep it off the ground.

How can I make my bamboo fence last longer?

Fences are an external feature and are therefore exposed to wind, rain, UV rays, dust, pests and debris. The constant cycle of moisture retention and desiccation creates tiny cracks on the surface of bamboo. UV rays from sunlight cause the fibers to degrade, and winds blast the bamboo surface with dust particles.

All of this can cause major damage and weathering to your bamboo fence. Luckily, there are three key things you can do to extend the life of your bamboo fence. Inspection, cleaning and sealing.

Check your fence for damage and pests every few months. Look for cracks, peeling, mold, holes, insects and pests, or excessive weathering. Identifying and solving even small problems quickly can help prevent further damage down the road, which will end up costing you more.

Prevent mold and rot by cleaning your bamboo fence once or twice a year, usually right before you seal it. You can use an eco-friendly fence cleaner or a solution of three parts water and one part bleach in a garden sprayer. You may want to wash your fence with a pressure washer beforehand to remove particularly stubborn dirt if necessary.

Click here to see the fence cleaner on Amazon.

Finally, sealing your bamboo fence keeps water out and adds a layer of protection. If you’ve just washed your fence, allow it to dry completely before applying sealer – after all, you don’t want to seal the water! Quality sealers have high resistance to moisture and UV radiation and should contain a water-repellent preservative, fungicide and stabilizer to minimize shrinkage and swelling.

Is bamboo fence waterproof?

Bamboo is not naturally waterproof – it needs to be treated and sealed to retain this property. A high quality bamboo finish must be applied to the surface prior to installation once or twice a year depending on local weather conditions. Doing this regularly will keep your bamboo fence sealed and protected from water damage.

What kind of oil do you use for a bamboo fence?

Two effective and popular options are linseed oil or varnish. Linseed oil is a natural oil from the flax plant and has been used as a sealant since ancient times. Linseed oil dries solid, so it’s a good choice as a protective finish. However, it tends to yellow over time, although many commercial oils contain additives to prevent this.

To see boiled flaxseed oil on Amazon, click here.

Lacquer is a permanent seal made from resins, oils and solvents and is great for outdoor use. For even better protection, try Sparlack – it has greater UV and water resistance, which will make your bamboo fence last even longer if used correctly.

Click here to see Holmlack on Amazon.

Is bamboo fencing strong?

Bamboo is an exceptionally strong material – although exceptionally light and porous, it has a greater tensile strength than steel! Bamboo resists breaking under stress of up to 28,000 pounds compared to steel’s 23,000 pounds. Compared to wood, bamboo has proven to be two to three times stronger than most woods.

Unfortunately, raw bamboo has a slightly lower durability than most hardwoods. Bamboo is not wood; rather, it is a species of grass with woody stems. The stems of bamboo are tough and fibrous, but lack the natural toxins that help prevent biodegradation (or rot). In addition, bamboo contains high levels of natural sugars, which are attractive to mold, fungus, and pests.

For these reasons, bamboo must be treated with boric acid before being processed into fences or other building materials. This is usually done by the manufacturer or grower of the bamboo. However, once this is done, the bamboo has a much greater resistance to some of the things that will degrade it.

Are you ready for a bamboo fence?

Bamboo has many great qualities and with proper care can last for decades. Bamboo fences come in a variety of colors and styles and add great privacy to any fenced area. It can withstand many different weather conditions such as strong winds, heavy rains and hot temperatures.

Those who are environmentally conscious will love the sustainability of bamboo. Bamboo stalks are ready to harvest 3-6 years after planting, compared to the 30-50 years it takes a tree to grow before harvest. Bamboo plants release 30% more oxygen into the atmosphere compared to other plants and help prevent soil erosion. Check out “9 natural fences for your garden”.

So if you are considering a new or replacement fence, be sure to consider bamboo as an option!

The lower part of the bamboo stem is considered to be more durable, while the soft inner part of the wall degrades faster than the outer, harder part. This is related to the anatomical and chemical nature of the wood cells. Although some of the properties of bamboo are similar to those of wood, its growth characteristics and microstructure are different. Unlike wood species like teak, the structure of bamboo is free of toxic deposits.

The large amounts of starch present in bamboo make it very attractive to mold and fungi, termites and dust beetles. They cause great damage during drying, storage and subsequent use. Tests have also shown that bamboo is more susceptible to soft rot and white rot than brown rot.

Bamboo consists of 50-70% hemicellulose, 30% pentosans and 20-25% lignin. The lignin present in bamboo is unique and changes as the culm grows. Bamboo is also known to be rich in silica (0.5 to 4%), but all the silica is in the outer layer (1mm), while there is hardly any silica in the rest of the wall. Bamboo also has small amounts of waxes, resins, and tannins, but none of these have enough toxicity to enhance their natural durability.

The importance of bamboo protection

House made entirely of bamboo

Bamboo can be used as a building material for scaffolding, bridges, houses and buildings. Like wood, bamboo is a natural composite material with a high strength-to-weight ratio useful for structures.[1] Bamboo’s strength-to-weight ratio is similar to that of wood, and its strength is generally similar to strong softwood or hardwood.[2][3]

Bamboo is among the fastest growing plants in the world[4] due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain bamboo species can grow up to 91 cm, or nearly 4 cm/hr, in 24 hours.[5]

Historical use of bamboo for construction[ edit ]

In its natural form, bamboo as a building material is traditionally associated with the cultures of South Asia, East Asia, the South Seas, Central and South America. In China and India, bamboo was used to support simple suspension bridges, either by making cables out of split bamboo or by twisting whole stalks of sufficiently pliable bamboo together. One such bridge in the Qian-Xian area is mentioned in writings from 960 AD and may have stood as early as the 3rd century BC, largely due to continuous maintenance.

Bamboo has also long been used as scaffolding; The practice has been banned in China for buildings higher than six stories, but is still in continuous use for skyscrapers in Hong Kong. In the Philippines, the nipa hut is a fairly typical example of the simplest type of dwelling using bamboo. The walls are made of split and woven bamboo, and bamboo slats and poles can be used for support. In Japanese architecture, bamboo is mainly used as a complementary and/or decorative element in buildings such as fences, fountains, trellis and gutters, mainly due to the abundant quality wood.[7]

In parts of India, bamboo is used to dry clothes indoors, both as a pole high up near the ceiling to hang clothes, and as a stick used with acquired expertise to lift, spread and remove clothes after drying . It is also commonly used to make ladders, which, in addition to their normal function, are also used to carry corpses at funerals. In Maharashtra, the bamboo groves and forests are called Veluvana, the name Velu for bamboo most likely comes from Sanskrit, while Vana means forest. Additionally, bamboo is also used to make flagpoles for saffron colored Hindu religious flags that flutter across India, particularly in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

In Central and South America, bamboo is an essential part of building culture.[8] Typical forms of housing such as bahareques have developed, using bamboo in earthquake-prone areas. When well maintained and in good condition, they have performed surprisingly well in earthquakes.[9]

Modern use of round bamboo poles for construction[edit]

In recent decades there has been a growing interest in using bamboo round poles for construction, primarily for its sustainability. Famous bamboo architects and growers include Simón Velez, Marcelo Villegas, Oscar Hidalgo-López, Jörg Stamm, Vo Trong Nghia, Elora Hardy and John Hardy. The most well-known bamboo construction projects are in Vietnam, Bali (Indonesia), China and Colombia. The greatest advances in the structural use of bamboo have been made in Colombia, where universities have conducted significant research into panel and joint construction and large, high-profile buildings and bridges have been constructed.[8] In Brazil, bamboo has been studied for structural applications at the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro PUC-Rio for more than 40 years. Some important results are the tensegrity bamboo structures, the bamboo bicycles, the bamboo space structure with rigid steel joints, the deployable bamboo structural pavilions with flexible joints [10][11] and the active bamboo flexural-pantographic amphitheater structure [12][13]. ] developed by Bambutec Design.

Construction Codes[ edit ]

The first design rules for bamboo in the round were published by ISO in 2004 (ISO 22156 Bamboo – Structural Design, ISO 22157-1 Bamboo – Determination of Physical and Mechanical Properties Part 1 and ISO 22157-2 Bamboo – Determination of Physical and Mechanical Properties Part 2 : Laboratory Handbook. Colombia was the first country to publish a country-specific code for the structural uses of bamboo (NSR-10 G12). Since then, Ecuador, Peru, India, and Bangladesh have all published codes.[14] However, the Colombian code is still used generally regarded as the most reliable and comprehensive.

Curved structural shapes[edit]

Heat and pressure are sometimes used traditionally to form curved shapes in bamboo.[15]

Structural behavior[ edit ]

Stress-strain curve for bamboo

A typical bamboo exhibits nonlinear stress-strain behavior。It can retain a strain of up to 0.05 before failure, with stress levels as high as about 300 MPa.[16]

durability [edit]

Bamboo is more susceptible to rot than wood due to a lack of natural toxins [17] and its typically thin wall, meaning that a small amount of rot can mean a significant percentage change in capacity. There are three causes of decay: beetle infestation, termite infestation, and fungal infestation (rot).[18][19] Untreated bamboo can last 2-6 years indoors and less than a year when exposed to water.[18][17]

Protecting bamboo from rot requires two design principles:[18]

The bamboo must be kept dry throughout its life to protect it from rot (fungi). This fundamental architectural principle is called “Durability by Design” and involves using good design practices to keep the bamboo dry, such as the walls etc. The bamboo needs to be treated to protect it from insects (especially bugs and termites). The most common and most suitable chemical for treating bamboo is boron, usually either a mixture of borax and boric acid, but it also occurs in a compound (disodium tetraborate decahydrate).

Both principles must be applied to a design to protect bamboo. Boron alone is not sufficient to protect against decay and will leach out when exposed to water.[18]

Modern fixed preservatives can be used as alternatives to boron such as copper azole, however little bamboo has been reliably tested using these methods. In addition, they tend to be more hazardous to treatment personnel and the end user, making them less suitable for developing countries, where bamboo is currently the main use.[18]

Natural forms of bamboo treatment such as water soaking and exposure to smoke can provide limited protection against beetles, but there is little evidence that they are effective against termites and rot and so are not typically used in modern construction.[20 ]

Modern uses of laminated bamboo for construction[edit]

Bamboo can be cut and laminated into panels and boards. In this process, the stalks are cut into thin strips, planed flat and the strips dried; Then they are glued, pressed and done. Long used in China and Japan, entrepreneurs began developing and selling laminated bamboo flooring in the West in the mid-1990s. Products made from bamboo laminate, including flooring, cabinets, furniture and even decorations, are growing in popularity right now, moving from the boutique market to mainstream vendors like Home Depot. The bamboo goods industry (which includes small goods, fabrics, etc.) is expected to be worth US$25 billion by 2012.[21] The quality of bamboo laminate varies between manufacturers and varies depending on the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested (six years is considered optimal).

Common myths and misconceptions about using bamboo for construction[edit]

There are a number of common myths and misconceptions surrounding the use of bamboo for construction.

Myth 1: “Bamboo is stronger than steel.” [ to edit ]

This is a very common statement and comes from two sources:[3]

Because bamboo has a similar strength-to-weight ratio as mild steel, some people confuse this with actual strength. A few laboratory tests have shown that some parts of some species of some stalks have a tensile strength approaching that of mild steel (250 N/mm2).

However, even if some fibers of some species have relatively high strengths, the actual safe usable structural strength is closer to 5-10% of this value to account for variability in strengths.

Myth 2: “Bamboo only needs treatment to keep it from rotting.” [ edit ]

As discussed above, bamboo also needs to be kept dry to protect it from rot, and many existing bamboo structures show signs of rot because they do not follow the principles of durable construction.[22]

Myth 3: “Bamboo performs well in earthquakes because it ‘sways’ and ‘absorbs energy’.” [ edit ]

Bamboo is a brittle material and is therefore unable to absorb earthquake energy on its own. There is also no advantage of its low rigidity in terms of earthquake performance of bamboo buildings. Instead, bamboo structures are good in earthquakes primarily because:

[23]

They tend to be light. Joints in bamboo buildings can absorb some energy.

Myth 4: “Bolted joints cannot be used in bamboo construction.” [ edit ]

Smooth screw connections can show brittle behavior due to longitudinal splitting of bamboo stalks. The inclusion of bamboo culms at the connection zones increases resistance to this failure mode and brings a significant improvement in strength and ductility.

More importantly, bolted joints exhibit predictable compliance.[24][25][26] This is crucial for performing rational engineering design.[27] The screws are also widely available, easy to use, and versatile.[28]

Myth 5: “Bamboo can be used as a substitute for steel in reinforcement.” [ to edit ]

This misconception stems from the original idea that bamboo is stronger than steel and therefore could easily replace steel in reinforced concrete.

In reality, bamboo does not work well as a replacement for steel in concrete for the following reasons:[29]

Bamboo has ≈ 1/30 the capacity of high-strength steel, which is most commonly used in construction today, so one would need 30× additional material. There is no room for this in reinforced concrete.

/ the capacity of high-strength steel, which is most commonly used in construction today, so that one would need 30 × additional material. There is no room for this in reinforced concrete. To ensure a good bond between bamboo and concrete, expensive chemicals must be used to create the bond, which are bad for the environment.

Concrete cannot protect the bamboo from fungal and termite infestation.

Bamboo is a brittle material and, unlike steel, cannot itself absorb energy in an earthquake.

When all the above factors are taken into account, concrete reinforced with bamboo has a higher environmental impact than concrete reinforced with steel.

Case studies [ edit ]

Bamboo was used for the supporting elements of the India Pavilion at Expo 2010 in Shanghai. The pavilion is the world’s largest bamboo dome, approximately 34 m (112 ft) in diameter, featuring bamboo beams/elements covered with a reinforced concrete slab, waterproofing, copper plate, solar panels, a small windmill and live plants. A total of 30km of bamboo was used. The dome is supported by 18m steel piles and a series of steel ring girders. The bamboo has been treated with borax and boric acid as a flame retardant and insecticide and bent into the desired shape. The bamboo profiles were connected with rebar and concrete mortar to achieve the required lengths.[30]

Bamboo has been used successfully for housing in Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Colombia, Mexico, Nepal and the Philippines.[2][22][31] A suitable way of using bamboo for housing purposes is considered “bahareque encemendato” or “improved bahareque” / “engineered bahareque”.[32] This method takes the traditional Latin American construction system Bahareque (a derivative of Wattle and Daub) and constructs it, making it significantly more durable and resilient to earthquakes and typhoons.

Cultivation [ edit ]

harvest [edit]

Bamboo used for construction must be harvested when the culms are at their greatest strength and when the sugar content in the sap is lowest, since high sugar levels increase the ease and speed of pest infestation.

Bamboo harvesting typically occurs according to the following cycles:

Straw Life Cycle As each individual stalk has a life cycle of 5-7 years, ideally the stalks are allowed to reach this level of maturity before harvesting full capacity. Clearing out or thinning out culms, especially older decaying culms, will help ensure adequate light and resources for new growth. Well tended clumps can have a productivity 3 to 4 times the productivity of an unharvested wild clump. Consistent with the life cycle outlined above, bamboo is harvested from two to three years to five to seven years, depending on the species. Annual Cycle Since all growth of new bamboo occurs during the rainy season, disrupting the clumping during this phase will potentially harm the coming harvest. The sap content is also highest during this period of high rainfall and then decreases towards the dry season. Picking just before the rainy/growing season can also damage new shoots. Therefore, the harvest is best a few months before the start of the rainy season. Diurnal Cycle During the daytime high, photosynthesis is at its peak and produces the highest sugar content in the juice, making this the least ideal time of day to harvest. Many traditional practitioners believe that the best time to harvest is during the waning moon in the morning or evening light.

More pictures[edit]

Bamboo has long been used as a mounting material in Hong Kong due to its versatility

A thatched house made of bamboo and palm trees in Ecuador

Chakma woman weaving on the balcony of bamboo house, Chittagong Hill Tracts

A bamboo house in Indonesia

A nipa hut or bahay kubo is a type of stilt house in the Philippines

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Media related to Bamboo houses at Wikimedia Commons

Bamboo is a perennial flowering plant with a distinct life cycle: many bamboo species remain in the vegetative phase for decades, followed by mass-synchronous flowering and subsequent death. The bamboo flowering phenomenon is not fully understood, but its periodicity is an important research focus. Here we have collected information about bamboo flowering events by examining historical documents and field studies at the Bamboo Research Institute of Nanjing Forestry University. We’ve compiled information on more than 630 flowering events, 124 of which accurately recorded flowering cycle time. We’ve detailed the specific flowering cycles of 85 bamboo species, as well as four types of bamboo flowering habits. We present a theory of the bamboo flowering cycle and discuss the reasons for the observed fluctuations in bamboo flowering. This review also introduces two mechanisms by which bamboo forests are rejuvenated after flowering and explains the flowering phenomena of bamboo forests using the bamboo flowering cycle theory. Finally, we present proposals for forest management strategies. Bamboo flowering is a normal physiological phenomenon, although it has unique elements compared to flowering in other plants. The results presented here provide valuable reference material for understanding bamboo flowering and its periodicity.

introduction

Bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae) is a large group of the family Poaceae. There are more than 88 genera and 1,642 species worldwide, of which 28 genera and more than 120 species are herbaceous bamboo (Vorontsova et al., 2016). Bamboo is widespread in the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of all continents except Europe and Antarctica, from the lowlands to about 4,000 m above sea level. China is a center of bamboo distribution with more than 34 genera and 534 species (Chen et al., 2006). Bamboo species play an important economic and ecological role in many countries. Bamboo offers a wide range of products and has many uses for humans and other animals, while also having a major impact on the environment (Zhou, 1984).

Bamboo has attracted worldwide attention due to its distinctive life story. It is a perennial flowering plant, but many bamboo species remain in a vegetative phase for decades or even a century, followed by mass-synchronous flowering and subsequent death (Janzen, 1976). Therefore, the bamboo bloom negatively affects the livelihoods of people who depend on bamboo resources and could lead to famine among self-sufficient farmers. For example, Bambusa balcoa, B. tulda, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and Stapletonia arunachalensis flowered in 2009 in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Subsequently, rodent outbreaks were reported in the flowering area causing severe damage to many crops (Kumawat et al., 2014). Consequently, people have started to pay more attention to the bamboo flower because of its scientific importance and its crucial role in many human communities.

All seed plants have similar life cycles, from seed germination through a juvenile stage, a vegetative growth stage, and a reproductive period, including flowering and seed formation. Bamboo is similar, although it has its own unique flowering characteristics, including: (i) it has a long vegetative phase; and (ii) its asexual reproductive ability is particularly strong, with a single clone having the ability to populate an entire bamboo forest. In addition, bamboo flowering has been linked to a number of poorly understood phenomena, such as flowering and dying bamboo groves and sporadic blooms.

From more than 2,000 years ago to 1,721 years ago, many ancient Chinese books have recorded the phenomena of bamboo flowering and fruiting. However, most of these records mainly focus on the culinary and medicinal uses of bamboo fruit. The book Shan Hai Jing, written more than 2,000 years ago, states: “When bamboo blooms, it will wither. “The Book of Zhu Pu, written by Dai during the Jin Dynasty (from 317 to 420), states: “It takes 60 years for bamboo to bloom and sow, and bamboo can regenerate itself by seed in 6 years.” In 1721, one described local biography of Taizhou in Zhejiang province the fruit of Fargesia sp., which could be used to treat dysentery (Zhou and Hu, 2000). From the mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, researchers began classifying bamboo plants, but there were no reports of bamboo flowers. In fact, the first bamboo classification came from Rumpf (1750) who divided the bamboos into eight classes, all named Arundo. Based on this division, Linnaeus in 1753 used the name “Arundo bambos” to include all bamboos. Later the genus name Bambusa was adopted (Holttum, 1956). In 1788, Retzius first established the genus of sympodial bamboo under the name Bambusa (Jiang, 2007). In 1803 the first one-legged bamboo genus, Arundinaria Michaux, was established (Chao and Tang, 1993).

From 1829 to the mid-19th century, researchers paid more attention to the reproductive organs such as inflorescences and fruits of bamboo plants. The earliest description of a bamboo inflorescence as a distinct structural unit is by Nees in 1829. This was quoted verbatim by Munro as part of his characterization of the “Bambusaceae” (Munro, 1868; McClure, 1966). From the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, the amount of literature on bamboo flowering began to increase, and many accounts used reproductive organs such as inflorescences and fruits as the main basis for classifying bamboo. For example, Munro used fruit characteristics as the main classification criterion, although the number of fruit-bearing specimens was limited (Munro, 1868).

In the twentieth century research on bamboo flowering proliferated and inflorescence traits were widely used in the classification of bamboo. In addition, researchers extensively studied flowering-related events in bamboo, including flowering cycle, flowering habits, factors leading to flowering, death and recovery, rejuvenation, and the effects of bamboo flowering (Lu, 1980; He et al., 1994; Chen et al., 1995; Cheng et al., 2014). In addition, McClure (1966) and Keng (1986) conducted many detailed studies on inflorescences and the development of bamboo plants, and applied inflorescence traits to bamboo classification. Yao and Tan (2008) found that the fruits of only 72 species (out of 515 species of bamboo) were described in the ninth volume of Chinese Flora. Since the beginning of the 21st century, studies on bamboo flowering have mainly focused on flower biology (Qin, 1995; Zeng et al., 1998; Xing et al., 2005; Wang and Wu, 2009), molecular biology (Zhang et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2014, 2015; Wang et al., 2014) and the spatial and temporal distribution of flowering bamboo (Bhattacharya et al., 2006; Lin and Ding, 2007; Franklin, 2010; Zhang et al., 2012; de Carvalho et al., 2013; Gao et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014; Crone et al., 2015).

Although the bamboo flower has been studied, many questions remain. Why do many sympodial bamboo species mentioned in the literature often flower sporadically? Why are differences observed in flower types of the same bamboo species in different areas? Why do the same bamboo species bloom in some areas and not others? In this review, we pursue these questions by (I) summarizing and synthesizing information from many studies on the bamboo flowering cycle, including more than 600 bamboo flowering events and 30 specific bamboo flowering events observed by researchers at the Bamboo Research Institute of Nanjing Forestry University. (II) Detailing the four types of bamboo flowering habit and summarizing the specific flowering cycles of 85 species of bamboo. (III) Introduction of a theory of bamboo flowering cycle showing that each bamboo species and clone has its own flowering cycle. In addition, we also introduce the flowering distribution and flower wave phenomenon of bamboo, which explains why there are different flower patterns in bamboo forests and the reasons for bamboo flowering. (IV) Presentation of two ways to rejuvenate flowering bamboo forests. We simplify the complicated flowering phenomena of different bamboo forests in nature by using the theory of bamboo flowering cycle to rationalize flowering phenomena.

Types of Bamboo Flower

To classify the species of bamboo flower, we first collected as many bamboo flower examples as we could find. Researchers from the Bamboo Research Institute of Nanjing Forestry University have observed and studied the flowering events of many species of bamboo. Table 1 lists the flowering events of 30 bamboo species, including details of flowering time, location and species. We have observed that many species such as Bambusa multiplex, Chimonobambusa sichuanensis, Phyllostachys edulis, Ph. glauca, Ph. nidularia and Sasaella kogasensis “Aureostriatus” all flowering stems have died after flowering. There are also some differences between different flowering bamboo species, mainly in the rate of seed set and the type of regeneration and regeneration of the bamboo forest. It is worth noting that the observed flowering habits of some bamboo species were not fully consistent with the historical literature, which could possibly be related to a change in environment and/or whether they were wild or cultivated.

TABLE 1

Table 1. Bamboo blossom events observed by the Bamboo Research Institute of Nanjing Forestry University.

Based on the extensive collected examples, we found that the flowering habit of bamboo can be divided into four types: sporadic, massive synchronous, combined massive synchronous and sporadic, and partial flowering (McClure, 1966; Lin and Mao, 2007). The details are shown in Table 2. The classification of the flowering phenomenon is done here according to the proportion of bamboo flowering in bamboo forests, in the hope of unifying the classification criteria.

TABLE 2

Table 2. Fairly reliable records of bamboo flowering habit.

With sporadic flowering, there are usually only 1-2 clusters or a small area of ​​scattered bamboo flowering within a bamboo population. This bloom is random. As shown in Table 2, 53 species of bamboo are listed that bloom sporadically, including common species such as Bambusa emeiensis, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, and Ph. violascens. According to literature (Zhou, 1984; Du et al., 2000; Yuan et al., 2005, 2008, 2012; Franklin, 2010), sporadic flowering is common in cultivated or intensively managed bamboo species, which are more sporadic flowering than wild species. Franklin (2010) suggested that the term “sporadic flowering” might imply adventitious or other non-gregarious flowering patterns, but application of the term has been variable and ill-defined, and there is no convincing evidence that any seed bamboo has a reproductive strategy, which can be considered “unsociable”. This paper states that sporadic blooming is a random and irregular small number of blooms.

In massive synchronized flowering, also known as gregarious flowering, a large >50% flowering area occurs within a bamboo population. Many bamboo plants exhibit a cyclic pattern of gregarious flowering after a long growing season (Janzen, 1976; Du et al., 2000). As shown in Table 2, 70 species of bamboo undergo massive synchronous flowering. Many researchers are concerned about this type of flowering, since the massive synchronous flowering of bamboo forests will lead to large-scale bamboo die-off, seriously affecting the local economy and environment.

In the combined category of massive synchronous and sporadic flowering, species may show sporadic and/or small areas of flowering before and after large areas of flowering. As shown in Table 2, 23 bamboo species such as B. tulda, Chusquea culeou, C. montana, Melocanna baccifera, Ph. heteroclada, Ph. reticulata and Sasa cernua belong to this category (Zhang W.Y. et al., 1992; Pearson et al. , 1994; Du et al., 2000; Ramanayake and Weerawardene, 2003; Bhattacharya et al., 2006; Kitamura and Kawahara, 2009; Wang and Wu, 2009; Tagle et al., 2013).

In the case of partial flowering, the degree of flowering in a bamboo forest lies between sporadic and massive synchronous flowering and generally occurs in an uneven distribution. There are seven bamboo species listed as partially flowering in Table 2. For example, Pleioblastus simonii experienced a partial bloom at Kew Gardens from 1892 to 1903 (Bean, 1907).

We investigated whether there is an association between the flowering habits of bamboo species and their taxonomic position at the genus level. We found that some genera such as Arundinaria, Bambusa, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys, Pleioblastus and Schizostachyum included sporadic, massively synchronous and combined massively synchronous and sporadically flowering species (Bean, 1907; Jiao, 1956; Anonymous, 1961; Ram and Gopal , 1981, Zhou, 1984, Zhang and Ma, 1989, Pearson et al., 1994, Du et al., 2000, Li and Denich, 2004, Bhattacharya et al., 2006, Mao et al., 2008, Kitamura and Kawahara , 2009; Nath and Das, 2010; Sarma et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2012, 2014; Tagle et al., 2013; Inoue et al., 2014; Xie et al., 2016; Zheng et al. , 2016). Some bamboo genera, such as Fargesia, Indosasa, Pseudosasa, and Yushania, included sporadic and massive synchronous flowering species (Zhang and Ma, 1989; Du et al., 2000; Li and Denich, 2004; Jiang, 2007). In some genera, such as Acidosasa, Ampelocalamus, Cephalostachyum, Drepanostachyum, Gaoligongshania, Gigantochloa, Melocalamus, Sasaella, Shibataea and Sinobambusa, only massively synchronous flowering bamboo species have been observed (Du et al., 2000; Ramanayake and Weerawardene, 2003; Kumawat et al. , 2014; Zheng et al., 2016). However, some bamboo genera such as Neomicrocalamus, Pseudostachyum and Semiarundinaria contain only sporadically flowering species (Zhang and Ma, 1989; Du et al., 2000; Yuan et al., 2005). Obviously there are some genera that show only one model while others show more. This problem is more complicated and may be related to the number of species in the genus or the range of the species. In general, the species-rich genera are more widespread and different flowering types can be seen more frequently. However, the differences in flower types in different species within the same genus are mainly determined by the biological characteristics of the species. For example, it is a very common phenomenon that some species in Phyllostachys flower sporadically, like Phyllostachys nidularia, but some species usually show massive synchronous flowering, like Ph. glauca, Ph. reticulata. Another example is that multiple flower types can be observed in one species of bamboo. Ph. heteroclada, a bamboo species widespread in China, massively flowered in Shennongjia, Hubei Province, China in 1958 and partially flowered in Nanjing Forest University, China in 1987–1989. In addition, it flowered massively in Yaan, Sichuan Province, China in 2003–2007, and flowered sporadically in Yiliang, Yunnan Province, China in 1995 (Zhou, 1984; Du et al., 2000; Li and Denich, 2004; Wang and Wu, 2009 ). Therefore, bamboo flowering type can only be determined based on the specific flowering behavior of a bamboo population. There is no apparent relationship between flowering behavior of bamboo species and taxonomic position at the genus level.

The bamboo flower type is closely related to whether the bamboo forest is wild or cultivated. You et al. (2000) studied the flowering phenomena and species of 61 species of bamboo belonging to 23 genera in Yunnan, China. They classified bamboo flowering into massive synchronous and sporadic flowering and showed that the flowering and fruiting characteristics of bamboo species are closely related to their status as wild or cultivated and to their taxonomic relatedness at the genus level.

The flowering cycle of bamboo

The period between two gregarious flowers is commonly referred to as the flower cycle, and the flower cycles of different species of bamboo are variable. The flowering cycle of bamboo ranged from 3 to 150 years (Kurz, 1876; Janzen, 1976) (Table 3). Brandis (1899) classified bamboo flowering habits into three types: annual, periodic, and uncertain.

TABLE 3

Table 3. Flowering cycle records of some bamboo species.

In this review, we have compiled more than 600 records of bamboo flowering events from 85 bamboo species from the literature, 187 of which had a defined flowering cycle. As shown in Table 3, some species belonging to apparently iteroparous bamboos, which grow to maturity and then flower and seed annually for many years, have been designated as annual flowering. These included Neololeba amahussana, Ochlandra scriptoria, O. stridula, and Kuruna wightiana (McClure, 1966; Janzen, 1976; Zhou, 1984; Fan and Qiu, 1987; Lin, 2009). However, the term annual flowering bamboo species remains a matter of debate in the literature, since it will take several years for some bamboo species from the first flowering to the end of flowering. For example, Pseudosasa amabilis flowers for 15 years and is therefore easily mistaken for an annual flowering bamboo species (Lin and Mao, 2007). With perennial bamboo species, it is important to distinguish annual flowering bamboo species from bamboo species that bloom for a long time.

We have found that the flowering cycles of different bamboo species, even those belonging to the same genus, vary greatly. For example, the flowering cycle of Arundinaria varied from 10 to 60 years, Bambusa from 30 to 150+ years, Chusquea from 12 to 70 years, and Phyllostachys from 13 to 120 years (Brandis, 1899; Kawamura, 1927; Ueda, 1960; Numata, 1970 Chen 1973 Janzen 1976 Zhang 1977 Lu 1980 Zhou 1984 Fu 1985 Pearson et al 1994 González and Donoso 1999 Li and Denich 2004 Liu and Fu 2007 Jaksic and Lima, 2010; Tagle et al., 2013; Guerreiro, 2014). The flowering cycle in Guadua was less variable and relatively stable, ranging from 26 to 33 years (Dutra, 1938; Janzen, 1976; Nelson, 1994; de Carvalho et al., 2013; Guerreiro, 2014). In addition, the flowering cycle observed by different researchers in different locations was different for the same species of bamboo. For example, B. bambos flowered in Brazil in 1804, 1836, 1868, and 1899, giving it a flowering cycle of 31–32 years (Dutra, 1938). At Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India, it flowered in 1836, 1881 and 1926, resulting in a flowering cycle of 45 years (Blatter and Parker, 1929). In the Upper Weinganga Valley, Balaghat District, India, it flowered in 1818 and 1865–1870, giving it a flowering cycle of 47–52 years (Nicholls, 1895).

Janzen (1976) described in detail the flowering cycles of 41 species of bamboo. Guerreiro (2014) studied and estimated the flowering cycles of 16 woody bamboo species in Argentina and adjacent areas. Franklin (2010) has charted and summarized the flowering cycle of B. arnhemica. Their work revealed that the flowering cycle of the same species of bamboo is not fixed and can vary widely. For example, the flowering cycle of Ph. edulis was widely believed to be 67 years (Watanabe et al., 1980), but according to other records, Ph. edulis has not flowered in Fenghua, Zhejiang Province, China for more than 200 years ( Chai et al., 2006). This phenomenon can be caused by differences in flowering cycles in different clonal bamboo forests or by the influence of environmental factors, particularly those of managed plantations.

Unique is the synchronous flowering phenomenon of the bamboo, which has attracted a lot of attention. Janzen (1976) proposed a predator-flight hypothesis to explain the synchronous flowering of bamboo. This hypothesis assumes that when bamboo forests bloom sporadically, seed predators eat the seeds. Reproduction by seeds is only guaranteed if enough seeds are produced to compensate for loss by seed eaters. Crones et al. (2015) also showed that synchronous reproduction among conspecifics has several proven fitness benefits, including increased pollination rates, increased seed disperser attraction, and reduced seed predation. Veller et al. (2015) proposed a simple mathematical model supporting a two-stage evolutionary process: first, an initial phase in which a mostly annual flowering population synchronizes with a small multiannual interval; and second, a phase of successive small multiplications of the initial synchronization interval, resulting in the extraordinary intervals seen today. Other researchers believe that many species have general tendencies towards synchronous flowering over large continental regions. Campbell (1985) noted a remarkable concentration of mean periods with multiples of 15–16 years among 20 taxa, most of them from Southeast Asia. Guerreiro (2014) showed that several species of woody bamboo native to southern South America undergo synchronous flowering with flowering cycles lasting ~30 years.

Researchers calculate the flowering cycle by subtracting two flowering times. This is only true if the later flowering bamboo is the descendant of the earlier flowering bamboo. Therefore, for an accurate prediction of a flowering cycle, it is necessary to observe at least three generations. However, the available data on bamboo flowering can be questionable. First, it’s very easy to find data based on just a single recorded flowering cycle generation. Second, several different flowering events are described in many bamboo species, but it is not known whether the bamboo forests in one flowering event originate from the seeds produced by the last flowering event. Finally, the historical record of bamboo flowering is limited. Only one mass flowering event has been recorded for many bamboo species, but the historical flowering period of the bamboo forest and subsequent seed flow are not described in detail. While there is no definitive way to address these issues, historical data still provides an important reference.

Bamboo Flower Cycle Theory

Based on the rich historical documents and the field observations of the researchers at the Bamboo Research Institute of Nanjing Forestry University over the past few decades, some conclusions on the theory of bamboo flowering cycle are proposed and summarized.

First, a bamboo species has a specific flowering cycle, or rather, every ramet (i.e., individuals with the same genotype from the same fertilized egg) of bamboo has a specific flowering cycle. Also, the differences in flowering cycles between different bamboo species are larger than between different clones of the same species. For example, Phyllostachys glauca flowered west of Zhejiang, China in 1909 and partially flowered in Fuyang County, Zhejiang Province, China in 1965. Furthermore, Ph. glauca flowered in Jinlu Village, Yinzhou County, Zhejiang Province, China since 1990, and also flowered in Linqing and Jinan County, Shandong Province, China in 2013–2016 (Anonymous, 1972; Xu and Chen, 1992). . However, Ph. glauca did not flower in other places such as Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. This suggests that the Ph. glauca plants in these locations likely descended from different clones with different specific flowering times and flowering cycles.

Clonal bamboo has very similar flowering cycles. For example, Sasaella kogasensis ‘Aureostriatus’ was introduced to Nanjing Forestry University of China in 1984 by Professor Zhou from the Fuji Bamboo Garden in Japan. Subsequently, the bamboo was introduced to all parts of China by Nanjing Forestry University. Since 2015, forests of S. kogasensis ‘Aureostriatus’ have flowered consecutively in China, suggesting that the same clone continues to flower synchronously. Still, changes in the local environment can result in slightly different flowering cycles. Although the flowering cycle of the same clonal bamboo is theoretically stable, it is influenced by the environment. If the clonal bamboo is susceptible to disturbance, its flowering time will vary greatly in different environments. However, when clonal bamboo is not easily disturbed, flowering time is less variable. For example, Ph. glauca, which grows in the Royal Botanical Gardens of England and Japan and was introduced from western Zhejiang, China, flowered in 1907 (Cheng et al., 2014).

Second, flowering in a bamboo forest can last for several years and generally goes through three phases: small areas of sporadic flowering, massive synchronous flowering, and small areas of sporadic flowering. This phenomenon is called “bamboo blossom distribution”. Synchronous flowering refers to a flowering distribution in which the vast majority of clumps within a bed initiate flowering in a given year, with most of the remaining flowering in the year before or after (Abe and Shibata, 2012). Suyama et al. (2010) suggested that sporadic flowering may occur as a result of a mechanistic malfunction and lead to massive flowering, so this should be considered part of the normal schedule for massive flowering. For example, we observed that Pleioblastus pygmaeus started blooming sporadically in 2015 in the bamboo garden at Nanjing Forestry University in Jiangsu Province, China. By 2016, the number of flowering bamboo stems peaked at ~85%, but by 2019, some flowering clusters appeared. The proportion of clumps flowering during the peak season varies between different bamboo species, e.g. B. 80-90% for Sarocalamus faberi (Taylor and Qin, 1988), 95.7% for B. arnhemica (Franklin, 2010) and 96.5% for C. culeou (Marchesini et al., 2010).

Third, the gregarious bloom occurs in patches over successive years and this has been described as a “bloom wave”. These waves are widespread in bamboo species and are repeated in successive generations (Franklin, 2010). Franklin (2010) hypothesized that bamboo flower surges were the product of environmental increases in flowering schedules where the underlying periodicity in germination was reset by an endogenous biological clock. When a portion of a population is subject to such an increment, and that portion is sufficiently aggregated in time and space to maintain synchronicity-derived viability, an offset (patch) is established that is maintained across generations. Blooming waves are always temporally organized, but not necessarily spatially organized (Franklin, 2010; Abe and Shibata, 2012). This phenomenon represents the interaction of endogenous and exogenous factors. Bamboo is a special plant with a long vegetative growth phase. Bud mutations are common in bamboo plants, including Ph. edulis, Ph. edulis f. pachyloen, B. multiplex and its variant B. multiplex var. riviereorum. Bamboo forests are more likely to mutate during the period of sexual reproduction (Janzen, 1976; Franklin, 2010; Hanlon et al., 2019). Therefore, even if the plants in a bamboo forest initially all come from the same clone, it is possible that there will be variations within the forest. In addition, the environment affects the bamboo flowering. In general, internal and external factors lead to different flowering cycles and form the flowering wave.

In line with the bamboo flower references, four species of bamboo flower have been grouped together (Lin and Mao, 2007). Why are different flowering types observed? The reasons for these phenomena are as follows: First, the flowering events in bamboo forests generally form temporally structured but spatially chaotic flowering distributions that go through three phases: small areas of sporadic flowering, massive synchronous flowering, and small areas of sporadic flowering. Therefore, different types of flowers can be obtained by observing the bamboo forest at different times. On the other hand, it also depends on whether the bamboo forest is populated by the same clonal bamboo. The flowering cycles of different bamboo ramets are different. Therefore, if the bamboo forest consists of the same clone, it will form a flowering distribution and complete the reproductive phase. However, if the bamboo forest consists of different clones, then there will be different flowering periods for the different clones. So when one of the clones starts flowering, the other clones may still be in the vegetative stage. This makes it possible to form waves of flowers, and researchers often observe sporadic blooms or partial blooms in a bamboo forest. Therefore, a variety of flower patterns are often observed in bamboo forests.

In the past, the causes of bamboo flowering remained controversial. Viele Theorien sind entstanden, darunter Wachstumszyklus, Ernährung, äußere Ursache, freie Radikale, Pathologie, individuelle Variation, Mutation, periodisches Altern und Verjüngung (Janzen, 1976; Sharma, 1994; Keeley und Bond, 1999; Chai et al., 2006 ; Wang, 2013). Kawamura (1927) schlug vor, dass die Periodizität in Bambus das Produkt eines endogenen Mechanismus sein muss, der relativ immun gegen Umwelteinflüsse ist. Franklin (2010) stellte Hypothesen zu den Wechselwirkungen von endogenen und exogenen Hinweisen auf die Blüte auf, die zur Entwicklung von Blütenwellen und anderen Blütenmustern bei Bambus führen können. Er schlug auch vor, dass Stressoren auf die Pflanze die Uhr außer Kraft setzen oder erzwingen könnten, wie zum Beispiel die Hormonproduktion unabhängig von der Uhr auszulösen. Es ist möglich, dass die Schwelle des physiologischen Stresses, der erforderlich ist, um die Blüte auszulösen, abnimmt, wenn sich der geplante Zeitpunkt der Blüte nähert (Franklin, 2010). Kürzlich haben Forscher einen Konsens über die Ursache der Bambusblüte erzielt. Sie glauben, dass die Bambusblüte durch Umweltbedingungen moduliert wird, aber die Hauptursache sind interne genetische Faktoren und die Blüte tritt auf, wenn Bambus zu seinem physiologisch reifen Alter heranwächst. Externe Faktoren wie das Klima und menschliche Störungen können das Auftreten von Bambusblütenereignissen bis zu einem gewissen Grad vorantreiben, verzögern oder stoppen (Franklin, 2010). Beispielsweise kann die Blütezeit von Bambus durch die Gabe exogener Hormone bis zu einem gewissen Grad verzögert oder vorgezogen werden (Ding, 2007). Der spezifische Schlüsselfaktor, der die Initiierung der Blüte bei Bambus induziert, ist jedoch noch unbekannt. Wir nehmen auch an, dass endogene Hormone, die dazu neigen, Signalmoleküle zu sein, Schlüsselfaktoren für die Initiierung sein könnten, aber dies erfordert weitere Untersuchungen.

Kurz gesagt, der Blühzyklus von Bambus ist sehr wichtig, um zukünftige Bambusblütezeiten vorherzusagen. Janzen (1976), Franklin (2010) und Guerreiro (2014) haben Zusammenfassungen des Blühzyklus von Bambus präsentiert. Ma et al. (2017) fanden bei Arundinarieae eine negative Korrelation zwischen der Geschwindigkeit der molekularen Evolution und dem Blühzyklus. Bamboo species with longer flowering cycles tend to evolve more slowly than those with shorter flowering cycles (Montti et al., 2011).

Rejuvenation and Regeneration of Flowering Bamboo Forests

Regeneration of a robust bamboo forest has major economic and ecological implications. There are generally two types of bamboo forest rejuvenation after flowering: sexual and asexual. The clonal composition of a bamboo forest will be changed after flowering and natural regeneration.

Regeneration Through Sexual Reproduction

Some bamboo species bloom and produce large amounts of seeds, which fall to the ground and germinate into seedlings. Seeds can grow into seedlings, and each seedling represents a clone. The flowering process of bamboo forests can last from several to more than 10 years, so the seedlings produced by the seeds may be of different ages. The bamboo species Chimonobambusa utilis (Zhang, 1985), Ch. pachystachys (Mao et al., 2008), Ch. tumidissinoda (Dong et al., 2001), Fargesia denudata (Shao, 1986), F. nitida (Yu et al., 1987), Melocanna arundina (Chai et al., 2006), Phyllostachys edulis (Qin, 2015), and Sarocalamus faberi (Qin et al., 1989; Taylor and Qin, 1993) belong to this type. S. faberi seedlings take ~15–20 years to develop into mature stands after a bamboo flowering event (Taylor and Qin, 1993). Thus, after flowering and rejuvenation, more clones can be formed in the bamboo forest.

Regeneration Through Asexual Reproduction

Here, the bamboo forest is rejuvenated by the flowering bamboos rhizomes and the buds of culm bases. In a flowering bamboo forest, the buds on the rhizomes of the flowering bamboo can sprout and form dwarf and weak bamboo, which usually bloom in the same year and will grow new rhizomes underground. In the following years, the buds of the new rhizomes sprout and form dwarf and weak bamboos that coexist with flowers and leaves. Thus, the flowering bamboo forest can form normal non-flowering bamboo after several years (Xiong et al., 1979). During the process of asexual rejuvenation, the proportion of flowering bamboo generally first rises and then falls, while the proportion of non-flowering bamboo falls and then rises. At the end, the bamboo forest does not blossom at all. Some bamboo species renew their forests in this way, such as Pleioblastus amarus (Zheng and Huang, 1990), Pl. amarus var. pendulifolius (Zheng and Huang, 1990), Phyllostachys reticulata (Lu, 1980), Ph. atrovaginata (He et al., 1994), Ph. vivax (Xiong et al., 1979), Ph. praecox f. prevernalis (Chai et al., 2006), Ph. fimbriligula (Chai et al., 2006), and Shibataea chinensis (Lin and Ding, 2012).

The process of regeneration and rejuvenation of this type of flowering bamboo forest is slow. For example, Ph. reticulata requires 7–10 years (Lu, 1980), Ph. vivax requires 6–7 years (Xiong et al., 1979), and Pl. amarus and Pl. amarus var. pendulifolius require at least 10 years (Zheng and Huang, 1990). However, artificial measures can be used to improve the growth conditions of bamboo forests and accelerate regeneration. For example, it only took 5–6 years for Ph. atrovaginata to recover to the pre-flowering production level under intense management conditions (He et al., 1994). During the process of asexual rejuvenation, variation may also occur. For example, Pleioblastus pygmaeus flowered during the period from 2015 to 2018 in Baima Bamboo Resource Nursery of Nanjing Forestry University (119°07′42″E, 31°37′55″ N), Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. After flowering the authors of this paper observed that many bamboo clumps of Pl. pygmaeus with white-striped leaves appeared in the bamboo forest. Therefore, the clonal composition of a bamboo forest after asexual rejuvenation may not be identical to that of the bamboo forest before flowering.

There are three bamboo fruiting types that are characterized based on seed production: those that produce a large number of seeds, those that rarely produce seeds, and those having no seeds. A few bamboo species have no seeds and can only regenerate their forests through asexual rejuvenation. For example, Lin and Ding (2012) observed the flowering of Shibataea chinensis at Nanjing Forestry University from 2002 to 2010, and found it had no seeds. Some bamboo species have a low seed setting rate, such as Bambusa emeiensis, B. multiplex, and Ph. heteroclada, and some have high seed setting rate, such as Ph. edulis, Ph. vivax, Pl. pygmaeus, and Sasaella kogasensis “Aureostriatus.” Generally speaking, most bamboo species with few seeds or a large number of seeds regenerate their forests through sexual reproduction and asexual rejuvenation after flowering. For example, B. multiplex, Indocalamus tessellatus, Ph. glauca, Pl. pygmaeus, and S. kogasensis “Aureostriatus” can be renewed in either manner after flowering (Cheng et al., 2014). There may be a preferred approach, but the specific selection of the regeneration manner may be correlated with the growth environment. In addition, a few species can only be propagated through sexual reproduction, such as Fargesia murielae.

Explanations of Natural Phenomena Using the Bamboo Flowering Cycle Theory

The bamboo flowering cycle theory described in this review may explain many strange and complex phenomena associated with bamboo flowering.

Genetically similar bamboo of a range of different ages coexist in space and time, forming a continuous spectrum of clones. This age structure may eventually lead to sporadic or partial flowering in the same bamboo forest, with no obvious regularity in flowering.

The following examples illustrate the continuous spectrum of clones. First, we take Phyllostachys edulis, a scattered bamboo species, as an example. Ph. edulis, distributed in Guilin, Guangxi Province, China began to bloom and bear fruits in a large area in 1963, and from 1995 until the present it had small areas of continuous blooming every year, where a significant amount of breeding was carried out (Li and Gu, 2003). Because flowering time does not occur at the same time for a whole bamboo forest, and it probably maybe last many years, the age of the offspring produced by it will also be different, therefore, a continuous spectrum of clones has formed in this bamboo forest. When a certain clone reaches the flowering age, the other clones may be still in vegetative growth. So when this flowering clone renews and resumes vegetative growth, other clones may reach the flowering age and start blooming. Consequently, the bamboo forest will show continuous patchy flowering for many years. The other example is Chimonobambusa utilis, a species distributed in Tongzi, Guizhou Province, China. Due to many clones of different ages, bamboo forests of Ch. utilis have had patchy flowering phenomenon every year since 2006. Third, according to historical documents some bamboo species frequently blossom sporadically, such as Bambusa distegia, B. emeiensis, B. intermedia, B. oldhamii, B. multiplex, and Dendrocalamus latiflorus. These bamboo species belong to sympodial bamboos, in their bamboo forests, they form a series of clones. In the same time and space, there are bamboos of different ages in the bamboo forest, so they will bloom in different years (Supplementary Video 1).

Conclusion and Perspectives

Bamboo plays an important role in human life, especially in countries that have rich bamboo resources. Bamboo flowering and the subsequent death of entire forests results in huge economic losses and environmental problems. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the flowering cycle of economically important bamboo species. Bamboo flowering is a normal biological phenomenon, the transformation from vegetative to reproductive growth. It is the last stage of ontogeny and is an inevitable process of a biological organism’s development (Wang, 2013).

The historical data that have been recorded lack many key details. Owing to the characteristic long lifespan of bamboo, it is very difficult to observe its full cycle in a generation (Guerreiro, 2014). The flowering cycle must be obtained by relying on the flowering events recorded in successive generations. In addition, with the advancement of civilization, many wild bamboo populations have disappeared, making it nearly impossible to observe flowering events in their original place. Consequently, this review suggests that seeds should be collected and seeded after the flowering and fruiting of bamboo plants. The seedlings can be separately planted in scientific research institutions that study bamboo, where they can be marked and managed. Similarly, data on bamboo forests that undergo asexual regeneration should be recorded. In this way, the next flowering times of bamboos in different regions, the variations of flowering in different clones, and the effects of the environment on bamboo flowering can be recorded.

Additionally, a database similar to the web-based Flora of China should be established. This would allow experts and non-experts to contribute to our understanding of bamboo flowering. It is necessary to record bamboo flowering events in detail, including information on the origin and whereabouts of the bamboo. At the same time, the identification of bamboo plants is difficult and error-prone. Therefore, it is essential to encourage scientific exchanges and validation. Finally, the website should contain information about the bamboo industry, technology, and other related aspects, so that it can become a useful resource for the bamboo industry.

The long flowering period of bamboo has long been a fascinating mystery. However, by examining historical data and generating accurate data going forward, we have begun to understand the flowering of this important and remarkable plant. Exploration of the molecular mechanisms setting the flowering time for bamboo, using knowledge leveraged from model plants, particularly other monocots, remains an exciting field for future research.

Author Contributions

XZ wrote the manuscript. YD and SL critically reviewed and added to the review. HF and YW contributions to acquisition of data, or analysis of data. All authors read and commented on this manuscript.

financing

This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation for Scholars of China (31870595); and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

thanks

We also thank Miranda Loney (http://abrc.sinica.edu.tw/editor/) for editing this manuscript.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00381/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary Video 1. Dynamic demonstation of flowering wave.

references

Abe, Y., and Shibata, S. (2012). Spatial and temporal flowering patterns of the monocarpic dwarf bamboo Sasa veitchii var. hirsuta. Ecol. Res. 27, 625–632. doi: 10.1007/s11284-012-0933-9 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anonymous (1961). A preliminary study on the cause of the flowering and fruiting of Indocalamus latifolius. J. Zhejiang Agric. science 352–353. doi: 10.16178/j.issn.0528-9017.1961.07.014 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anonymous (1972). Bamboo flowering and preventive measures. Forest Sci. Technol. 11–12. Google Scholar

Anonymous (2004). Otatea in western Mexico is in bloom. World Bamboo Rattan. 2:43. Google Scholar

Bennet, S. S. R., Gaur, R. C., and Sharma, P. N. (1990). Thirty-seven Bamboos Growing in India New Delhi. Controller of Publications, Government of India. Google Scholar

Blatter, E. (1930). The flowering of bamboos. Teil II. J. Bombay Nat. history society 33, 135–141. Google Scholar

Blatter, E. B., and Parker, R. N. (1929). The Indian bamboos brought up-to-date. Indian Forester 55, 541–562. Google Scholar

Bourdillon, T. F. (1895). Seeding of the thorny bamboo. Indian Forester 21, 228–229. Google Scholar

Bradley, J. W. (1914). Flowering of Kya-thaung bamboo (Bambusa polymorpha) in the Prome Division, Burma. Indian Forester 40, 526–529.

Brandis, D. (1899). Biological notes on Indian bamboos. Indian Forester 25, 1–25.

Brandis, D. (1906). On some bamboos in Martaban south of Toungoo between the Salwin and Sitang River-II. Indian Forester. 32, 179–295. Google Scholar

Broun, A. F. (1887). Seeding of bamboos. Indian Forester. 579.

Budke, J. C., Alberti, M. S., Zanardi, C., Baratto, C., and Zanin, E. M. (2010). Bamboo dieback and tree regeneration responses in a subtropical forest of south America. Forest Ecol. Manage. 260, 1345–1349. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2010.07.028 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Campbell, J. J. N. (1985). Bamboo flowering patterns: a global view with special reference to east Asia. J.Am. Bamboo Soc. 6, 17–35.

Chai, Z. L., Qin, Y. C., Hua, X. Q., Wang, Z. J., and Wang, Q. (2006). Advance of studies on bamboo flowering causes. J. Zhejiang Forestr. science Technol. 26, 53–57. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-3776.2006.02.015 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Chao, C., and Tang, G. G. (1993). The present status and problems of bamboo classification in China. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 17, 1–8.

Chen, S. L., Li, D. Z., Zhu, G. H., Wu, Z. L., Lu, S. L., Liu, L., et al. (2006). Flora of China, Vol. 22 (Poaceae). Beijing: Science Press.

Chen, Y. L., Ren, D. T., and Zhu, B. Y. (1995). Observations on flowering habit of Phyllostachys fimbriligura and its rejuvenation measures. J. Zhejiang Forestr. science Technol. 15, 50–56. Google Scholar

Cheng, Y. L., Wang, H. L., Sun, Y., and Zhang, R. Y. (2014). Study on the phenomenon of centralized flowering and regeneration of Phyllostachys glauca in Jinan. Garden Sci. Technol. 44–46.

Crone, E. E., McIntire, E. J. B., and Brodie, J. (2015). What defines mast seeding? Spatio-temporal patterns of cone production by whitebark pine. J. Ecol. 99, 438–444. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01790.x CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

de Carvalho, A. L., Nelson, B. W., Bianchini, M. C., Plagnol, D., Kuplich, T. M., and Daly, D. C. (2013). Bamboo-dominated forests of the southwest Amazon: detection, spatial extent, life cycle length and flowering waves. PLoS ONE 8:e54852. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054852 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ding, X. C. (2007). Hormonal regulation mechanism of flowering of Phyllostachys violascens under mulching cultivation. science Silvae Sinicae. 43, 10–15. doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1001-7488.2007.07.003 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dong, W. Y., Huang, B. L., Xie, Z. X., Xie, Z. H., and Liu, H. Y. (2001). Studies on the characteristics of blossoming and seed bearing of Qiongzhuea tumidinoda. J. Forestr. university 25, 30–32. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2001.06.008 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Du, F., Xue, J. R., Yang, Y. M., Hui, C. M., and Wang, J. (2000). Study on flowering phenomenon and its type of bamboo in Yunnan in past fifteen years. science Silvae Sinicae. 36, 57–68. doi: 10.11707/j.1001-7488.20000616 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dutra, J. (1938). Bambusees de Rio Grande du sud Revista. Sudamerica Bot. 5, 145–152.

Fan, F. S., and Qiu, F. G. (1987). The bamboo production and scientific research in India. J. Bamboo Res. 6, 50–68. Google Scholar

Fanshawe, D. B. (1972). The bamboo, Oxytenanthera abyssinica – its ecology, silviculture and utilization. Kirkia 8, 157–166. Google Scholar

Franklin, D. C. (2010). Synchrony and asynchrony: observations and hypotheses for the flowering wave in a long-lived semelparous bamboo. J. Biogeogr. 31, 773–786. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2003.01057.x CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Fu, Q. Y. (1985). Bamboo is a potential raw material for papermaking in tropical countries. Sichuan Papermaking. 34–41.

Gao, J., Ge, W., Zhang, Y., Cheng, Z., Li, L., Hou, D., et al. (2015). Identification and characterization of microRNAs at different flowering developmental stages in moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) by high-throughput sequencing. Mol. Genet. Genomics 290, 2335–2353. doi: 10.1007/s00438-015-1069-8 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gao, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, C., Qi, F., Li, X., Mu, S., et al. (2014). Characterization of the floral transcriptome of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) at different flowering developmental stages by transcriptome sequencing and RNA-Seq analysis. PLoS ONE 9:e98910. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098910 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Giordano, C. V., Rodolfo, A. S., and Austin, A. T. (2009). Gregarious bamboo flowering opens a window of opportunity for regeneration in a temperate forest of Patagonia. N. Phytol. 181, 880–889. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02708.x PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

González, M. E., and Donoso, Y. C. (1999). Seed and litter fall in Chusquea quila (Poaceae: Bambusoideae), after synchronous flowering in south-central Chile. Rev. Chil Hist. nat. 72, 169–180.

González, M. E., Veblen, T. T., Donoso, C., and Valeria, L. (2002). Tree regeneration responses in a lowland Nothofagus-dominated forest after bamboo dieback in south-central Chile. Plant Ecol. 161, 59–73. doi: 10.1023/A:1020378822847 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Govindan, B., Johnson, A. J., Nair, S. N. A., Gopakumar, B., Mallampalli, K. S. L., Venkataraman, R., et al. (2016). Nutritional properties of the largest bamboo fruit Melocanna baccifera and its ecological significance. science Rep. 6:26135. doi: 10.1038/srep26135 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Gupta, K. K. (1972). Flowering in different species of bamboos in Cachar district of Assam in recent times. Indian Forest. 98, 83–85.

Hanlon, V. C. T., Otto, S. P., and Aitken, S. N. (2019). Somatic mutations substantially increase the per-generation mutation rate in the conifer Picea sitchensis. Evol. Latvia 3, 348–358. doi: 10.1002/evl3.121 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

He, Y. S., Huang, R. Q., and Wang, W. Y. (1994). Rejuvenation and regeneration technique of flowered Phyllostachys atrovaginata. J. Zhejiang Forestr. science Technol. 14, 56–58. Google Scholar

Holttum, R. E. (1956). The typification of the generic name Bambusa and the status of the name Arundo bambos L. Taxon 5, 26–28. doi: 10.2307/1216941 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jaksic, F. M., and Lima, M. (2010). Myths and facts on ratadas: bamboo blooms, rainfall peaks and rodent outbreaks in south America. Austr. Ecol. 28, 237–251. doi: 10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.01271.x CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jiang, Z. H. (2007). Bamboo and Rattan in the World. Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House. Google Scholar

Jiao, Q. Y. (1956). Discussion on the flowering habit and stage development of perennial bamboo and sisal hemp. Plant Physiol. J. 13–19. doi: 10.13592/j.cnki.ppj.1956.02.004 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kadambi, K. (1949). On the ecology and silviculture of Dendrocalamus strictus in the bamboo forests of Bhadravati division, Mysore State, and comparative notes on the species Bambusa arundinacea, Oxytenanthera monostigma and Oxytenanthera stocksu. Indian Forester. 75, 289–299. doi: 10.2307/23117 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kawamura, S. (1927). On the periodical flowering of the bamboo. jpn J. Bot. 3, 335–349. Google Scholar

Keng, P. (1986). A preliminary study of the inflorescence type arising from bamboos and its variation. J. Wuhan Bot. Res. 4, 323–336. Google Scholar

Khan, M. A. W. (1972). Propagation of Bambusa vulgaris- its scope in forestry. Indian Forester. 359–362. Google Scholar

Kitamura, K., and Kawahara, T. (2009). Clonal identification by microsatellite loci in sporadic flowering of a dwarf bamboo species, Sasa cernua. J. Plant Res. 122, 299–304. doi: 10.1007/s10265-009-0220-1 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumawat, M. M., Singh, K. M., Tripathi, R. S., Riba, T., Singh, S., and Sen, D. (2014). Rodent outbreak in relation to bamboo flowering in north-eastern region of India. biol. Agric. Hortic. 30, 243–252. doi: 10.1080/01448765.2014.925828 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kurz, S. (1876). Bamboo and its use. Indian Forester 1, 219–269.

Kwe, T. (1904). The flowering of Bambusa polymorpha. Indian Forester 30, 244–245. Google Scholar

Li, X. W., and Gu, D. Q. (2003). Discussion on afforestation of the seedling of Phyllostachys edulis in Guangdong. World Bamboo Rattan. 1, 32–34. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-0431.2003.03.009 CrossRef Full Text

Li, Z., and Denich, M. (2004). Is Shennongjia a suitable site for reintroducing giant panda: an appraisal on food supply. Environmentalist. 24, 165–170. doi: 10.1007/s10669-005-6050-3 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, E. P. (2009). Functions of AP1/SQUA-?REV-?TB1-like genes and isolation and expression of microRNAs in Phyllostachys praecox (dissertation’s thesis). Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Lin, S. Y., and Ding, Y. L. (2007). Studies on the floral biological characteristics of three bamboo species of Phyllostachys. J. Forestr. Closely. 21, 52–55. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-8101.2007.05.018 CrossRef Full Text

Lin, S. Y., and Ding, Y. L. (2012). Development of the male and female gametophytes in Shibataea chinensis (Bambusoideae). Acta Bot. Boreali-Occidentalia Sinica. 32, 907–914. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-4025.2012.05.010 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, S. Y., and Ding, Y. L. (2013). Studies on the breeding system in Shibataea chinensis and Arundinaria simonii f. heterophylla. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 37, 1–5. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2013.03.001 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, S. Y., Fan, T. T., Jiang, M. Y., Zhang, L., Zheng, X., and Ding, Y. L. (2017). The revision of scientific names for three dwarf bamboo species (cultivar) based on the floral morphology. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 41, 189–193. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2017.01.029 CrossRef Full Text

Lin, S. Y., Hao, J. J., Hua, X., and Long, D. Y. (2009). The megasporogenesis, microsporogenesis and the development of their female and male gametophyte in Menstruocalamus sichuanensis. J. Nanjing Forest. university 33, 9–12. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2009.03.003 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, S. Y., Li, J., Zhao, R., Xu, Q., and Ding, Y. L. (2015). A research on the flowering biological characteristics of Bambusa multiplex in Nanjing city. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 39, 52–56. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2015.02.009 CrossRef Full Text

Lin, S. Y., and Mao, G. X. (2007). The habit and regeneration of bamboo flowering. Forestr. science Technol. 32, 23–25. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-9499.2007.05.008 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, S. Y., Shi, W. W., Miu, B. B., and Long, D. Y. (2010). Research advances in reproduction biology of bamboos. World Bamboo Rattan. 8, 1–6. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-0431.2010.02.001 CrossRef Full Text

Lin, S. Y., Wan, Y. W., Fu, H. J., Zhang, L., Jiang, M. Y., Yin, Z. F., et al. (2018). Research on inflorescence establishment and revision of inflorescence type in bamboo plants. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 42, 1–6.

Liu, Y. Y., and Fu, J. H. (2007). Bamboo in habitat of giant panda and its flowering phenomenon. World Bamboo Rattan. 5, 1–4. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-0431.2007.01.001 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lowndes, D. G. (1947). Flowering of bamboos. J. Bombay Nat. history society 47, 180. Google Scholar

Lu, J. L. (1980). Studies on flowering and regeneration of Phyllostachys reticulata. J. Henan Agric. university 11–20. doi: 10.16445/j.cnki.1000-2340.1980.02.002 CrossRef Full Text

Ma, P. F., Vorontsova, M. S., Nanjarisoa, O. P., Razanatsoa, J., Guo, Z. H., Haevermans, T., et al. (2017). Negative correlation between rates of molecular evolution and flowering cycles in temperate woody bamboos revealed by plastid phylogenomics. BMC Plant Biol. 17, 260–275. doi: 10.1186/s12870-017-1199-8 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mao, G. X., and Zhang, C. X. (1996). The cause of bamboo flowering and its preventive measures. J. Forestr. Closely. 33–34. doi: 10.13360/j.issn.1000-8101.1996.04.016 CrossRef Full Text

Mao, W. J., Dong, W. Y., Zhao, J. F., Wang, L., and Chen, C. (2008). A study of growth and natural regeneration of blossoming Chimonobambusa pachystachys Stand. World Bamboo Rattan. 6, 25–28. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-0431.2008.06.007 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Marchesini, V. A., Sala, O. E., and Austin, A. T. (2010). Ecological consequences of a massive flowering event of bamboo (Chusquea culeou) in a temperate forest of Patagonia, Argentina. J. Veget. science 20, 424–432. doi: 10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.05768.x CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

McClure, F. A. (1966). The Bamboos. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar

Mitra, G. N., and Nayak, Y. (1972). Chemical composition of bamboo seeds (Bambusa arundinacea Willd). Indian Forest. 98, 479–481. Google Scholar

Montti, L., Campanello, P. I., and Goldstein, G. (2011). Flowering, die-back and recovery of a semelparous woody bamboo in the Atlantic forest. Acta Oecol. 37, 361–368. doi: 10.1016/j.actao.2011.04.004 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Munro, W. (1868). A monograph of the Bambusaceae, including descriptions of all the species. Trans. Linnean Soc. London. 26, 1–157. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1968.tb00502.x CrossRef Full Text

Nath, A. J., and Das, A. K. (2010). Gregarious flowering of a long-lived tropical semelparous bamboo Schizostachyum dullooa in Assam. Curr. science 99, 154–155.

Nelson, B. W. (1994). Natural forest disturbance and change in the Brazilian Amazon. Remote Sens. Rev. 10, 105–125. doi: 10.1080/02757259409532239 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Nicholls, J. (1895). The flowering of the thorny bamboo. Indian Forester 21, 90–95.

Numata, M. (1970). Conservation implications of bamboo flowering and death in Japan. biol. Conserv. 2, 227–229. doi: 10.1016/0006-3207(70)90120-5 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Pearson, A. K., Pearson, O. P., and Gomez, I. A. (1994). Biology of the bamboo Chusquea culeou (Poaceae: Bambusoideae) in southern Argentina. Vegetatio. 111, 93–126. doi: 10.2307/20046407 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Poudyal, P. P. (2009). Bamboo flowering in Sikkim and elsewhere in India. Mag. Bin. Bamboo Soc. 30, 9–10. Google Scholar

Qin, Z. L. (2015). Flowering and seeding characteristics of Phyllostachys pubescens and need analysis of seedlings in Guilin. World Bamboo Rattan. 13, 29–31. doi: 10.13640/j.cnki.wbr.2015.02.008 CrossRef Full Text

Qin, Z. S. (1995). Study on reproductive characteristic of Bashania fangenia. Acta Bot. Boreali Occidentalia Sinica. 15, 229–233. Google Scholar

Qin, Z. S., Cai, X. S., and Huang, J. Y. (1989). Seed characteristics and natural regeneration of arrow bamboo (Bashania fangenia). J. Bamboo Res. 8, 1–12. Google Scholar

Raizada, M. B. (1948). A litter-known Burmese bamboo (Sibocalamus copelandi). Indian Forester 74, 7–10.

Ram, H. Y. M., and Gopal, B. H. (1981). Some observations on the flowering of bamboos in Mizoram. Curr. science 50, 708–710. Google Scholar

Ramanayake, S. M. S. D., and Weerawardene, T. E. (2003). Flowering in a bamboo, Melocanna baccifera (Bambusoideae: Poaceae). bot. J. Linn. society 143, 287–291. doi: 10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.00216.x CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ray, P. K. (1952). Gregarious flowering of a common hill bamboo Arundinaria maling Gamble. Indian Forester 78, 89–91. Google Scholar

Ruiz-Sanchez, E. (2013). Otatea ramirezii (Poaceae: Bambusoideae: Bambuseae) flower description and the importance of the Mexican national living bamboo collection. Phytotaxa 150, 54–60. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.150.1.4 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sarma, H., Sarma, A. M., Sarma, A., and Borah, S. (2010). A case of gregarious flowering in bamboo, dominated lowland forest of Assam, India: phenology, regeneration, impact on rural economy, and conservation. J. Forestr. Res. 21, 409–414. doi: 10.1007/s11676-010-0090-3 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Seethalakshmi, K. K., and Muktesh Kumar, M. S. (1998). Bamboos of India: A Compendium. Beijing: International Network for Bamboo and Rattan. Google Scholar

Seifriz, W. (1920). The length of the life cycle of a climbing bamboo. A striking case of sexual periodicity in Chusquea abietifolia Griseb. Am. J. Bot. 7, 83–94. doi: 10.2307/2435166 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Seifriz, W. (1923). Observations on the causes of gregarious flowering in plants. Am. J. Bot. 10, 93–112. doi: 10.2307/2435577 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shah, N. C. (1968). Flowering of the bamboo, Dendrocalamus hookerii and Dendrocalamus strictus in Assam and Bihar states. Indian Forester 94:717.

Shao, J. X. (1986). Preliminary survey on the ecological characteristics of Fargesia denudate. Chin. J. Ecol. 5, 41–44. doi: 10.13292/j.1000-4890.1986.0105 CrossRef Full Text

Sharma, M. L. (1994). “The flowering of bamboo: fallacies and facts,” in Proceedings of the Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific (Chiangmai), 68–70.

Singleton, G. R., Belmain, S. R., Brown, P. R., and Hardy, B. (2010). Rodent Outbreaks: Ecology and Impacts Los Banos. Philippines, PA: International Rice research Institute. Google Scholar

Suyama, Y., Suzuki, J., and Makita, A. (2010). For the comprehension of gregarious flowering in bamboos. jpn J. Ecol. society 60, 97–106.

Tagle, L., Roberto, M., Mireya, B., Rene, M., and Xavier, L. (2013). Determination of minimal age of five species of Chusquea bamboos through rhizome analysis as a tool to predict the flowering in southern Chile. Rev. Chil. history nat. 86, 423–432. doi: 10.4067/S0716-078X2013000400004 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Taylor, A. H., and Qin, Z. S. (1988). Regeneration from seed of Sinarundinaria fangiana, a bamboo, in the Wolong giant panda reserve, Sichuan, China. Am. J. Bot. 75, 1065–1073. doi: 10.2307/2443774 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Taylor, A. H., and Qin, Z. S. (1993). Bamboo regeneration after flowering in the Wolong giant panda reserve, China. biol. Conserv. 63, 231–234. doi: 10.1016/0006-3207(93)90717-F CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tewari, D. N. (1993). A Monograph on Bamboo. Dehra Dun: International Book Distributors. Google Scholar

Tredici, P. D. (1998). The first and final flowering of Muriel’s bamboo. Arnoldia 58, 11–17. Google Scholar

Troup, R. S. (1921). The Silviculture of Indian Trees. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar

Ueda, K. (1960). Studies on the physiology of bamboo: with reference to practical application. Bull. Tokyo Univ. Forests. 30, 1–167. Google Scholar

Vorontsova, M. S., Clark, L. G., Dransfield, J., Govaerts, R., and Baker, W. J. (2016). World Checklist of Bamboos and Rattans. Beijing: Science Press.

Wang, T. T., and Chen, M. Y. (1971). Studies on bamboo flowering in Taiwan. Taipei Nat. Taiwan Univ. Forest Exp. Sta Tech. Bull. 87, 27. Google Scholar

Wang, X., Zhang, X., Zhao, L., and Guo, Z. (2014). Morphology and quantitative monitoring of gene expression patterns during floral induction and early flower development in Dendrocalamus latiflorus. international J. Mol. Sci. 15, 12074–12093. doi: 10.3390/ijms150712074 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, X. H., and Wu, H. M. (2009). Biological characteristics study of Phyllostachys Heteroclada’s flowering. J. Chengdu Univ. 28, 195–198. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1004-5422.2009.03.003 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Watanabe, M., Ueda, K., Manabe, I., and Akai, T. (1980). Flowering, seeding, germination, and flowering periodicity of Phyllostachys pubescens. jpn Forestr. society 64, 107–111. Google Scholar

Wu, G. M. (1988). Reproduction of bamboo species of Phyllostachys- I. Flowering of bamboo species of Phyllostachys. J. Nanjing Forestry Univ. 60–67. Google Scholar

Xie, N., Chen, L. N., Wong, K. M., Cui, Y. Z., and Yang, H. Q. (2016). Seed set and natural regeneration of Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro after mass and sporadic flowering in Yunnan, China. PLoS ONE 11:e0153845. doi: 10.1371/journal PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xing, X. T., Fu, M. Y., and Xiao, X. T. (2005). Biological characteristics of flowering and controlled pollination of Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro. J. Beijing Forestr. university 27, 103–107. doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-1522.2005.06.020 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xiong, W. Y., Wu, G. M., Shen, H. J., Zhang, Z. Y., and Lu, X. H. (1979). An investigation on flowering and rejuvenation of Phyllostachys vivax Stands. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 14–21. Google Scholar

Xu, C. T., and Chen, W. G. (1992). Large area of Phyllostachys glauca blossoms in Yinzhou District. J. Bamboo Res. 97.

Xu, Y. K., Li, Q., Zhang, S. H., Xu, X. W., and Peng, X. K. (2012). Textual research on the flowering history of Pleioblastus intermedius and analysis of death. Zum. By-Product Speciality China. 86–87. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-6902.2012.01.042 CrossRef Full Text

Xu, Z. G., Guo, Q. R., Huang, D. Y., and Li, L. J. (2014). The floral biological characteristics of five sympodial bamboo species. Forestr. science Technol. 28, 74–77. doi: 10.13360/j.issn.1000-8101.2014.02.019 CrossRef Full Text

Yao, L. G., and Tan, H. C. (2008). Observation and determination of bamboos fruits from and quality. Forestr. inventory Plan. 33, 36–39. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-3168.2008.05.011 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yu, Q. Z., Wu, M., Zhao, B. H., and Zhang, X. P. (1987). A preliminary study on flowering habits of staple food bamboo of giant pandas. Sichuan Forestr. science Technol. 8, 49–54. doi: 10.16779/j.cnki.1003-5508.1987.01.008 CrossRef Full Text

Yuan, J. L., Fu, M. Y., Zhuang, J. K., Xiao, X. T., and Wang, P. H. (2005). The characteristics of flowering and pollinating of several sympodial bamboos and elementary selection of Dendrocalamus latiflorus seedlings. J. Bamboo Res. 24, 9–13. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-6567.2005.03.003 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yuan, J. L., Guo, G. P., Yue, J. J., Wu, X. L., and Gu, X. P. (2012). Featres of DNA methylation during the flowering process of Bambusa multiplex. Acta Bot. Boreali Occidentalia Sinica 32, 60–66. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-4025.2012.01.010 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yuan, X. L., Huang, Q. C., and Peng, H. Z. (2008). Correct understanding of bamboo flowering. Zhejiang Forestr. 32–33.

Yue, X. H., Zhao, R., and Lin, S. Y. (2018). Flowering biological characteristics of Phyllostachy glauca. Jiangsu Agric. science 46, 117–122. doi: 10.15889/j.issn.1002-1302.2018.10.031 CrossRef Full Text

Zeng, L., Ren, P., Li, Z. Q., Yang, D. S., Mou, X. W., Chen, Z. Y., et al. (1998). Report of biological features of Phyllostachys nidularia. Econ. Forest Res. 16, 9–73. doi: 10.14067/j.cnki.1003-8981.1998.04.003 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, C. X., Xie, Y. F., and Ding, Y. L. (2003). The studies of leaf senescence of Pseudosasa amabilis var. convexa during flowering and seeding stage. J. Nanjing Forestr. university 27, 59–61. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-2006.2003.02.014 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, H., Zou, J. Y., and Wang, Y. Y. (1994). Inquiry to flowering and seed bearing of Chimonobambusa quadrangularis Makino in Jinfoshan of Tongzi county. J. Bamboo Res. 13, 66–69.

Zhang, J. X. (1985). Investigations on the flowering, fruiting, and regeneration behavior in Orecalamus utilis Keng. J. Bamboo Res. 4, 86–88. Google Scholar

Zhang, J. X., Luo, W., and Ming, Y. (1992). A study on flowering and fruitage of Ampelocalamus scandens. J. Bamboo Res. 11, 97–99. Google Scholar

Zhang, S. S. (1977). Methods of flowering withered and restored in bamboo forest. Sichuan Forestr. science Technol. 19–21. doi: 10.16779/j.cnki.1003-5508.1978.01.008 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, W. Y., and Ma, N. X. (1989). Biological characteristics of bamboo plants in flowering stage. Forest Res. 2, 596–600. Google Scholar

Zhang, W. Y., Ma, N. X., Wu, L. L., Huang, S. T., and Zhang, J. W. (1992). A study of flowering and fruiting of Phyllostachys bambusoides. J. Bamboo Res. 11, 15–25. Google Scholar

Zhang, X. M., Zhao, L., Larsonrabin, Z., Li, D. Z., and Guo, Z. H. (2012). De novo sequencing and characterization of the floral transcriptome of Dendrocalamus latiflorus (Poaceae: Bambusoideae). PLoS ONE 7:e42082. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042082 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Lan, F. R., Zhu, Z. Y., Chen, X. D., and Guo, Q. R. (2018). The first record of flowering and bearing about Pleioblastus yixingensis (Bambusoideae: Poaceae). J. Trop. Subtrop. bot. 26, 171–177. doi: 10.11926/jtsb.3792 CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zheng, J. G., and Huang, W. F. (1990). Rejuvenescence technique of flowering Pleiblastus. J. Bamboo Res. 9, 61–72.

Zheng, X., Jiang, M. Y., Zhang, L., Lin, S. Y., and Ding, Y. L. (2016). Fruit morphological characteristics of thirteen bamboo species. J. Plant Resour. Environ. 25, 96–103. doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-7895.2016.04.12 CrossRef Full Text

Zhou, F. C. (1984). Silviculture of Bamboo Forests. Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House. Google Scholar