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Islamic view of Abraham

According to Islamic belief, Abraham (Arabic: إِبْرَاهِيْمُ‎, romanized: ʾIbrāhīm pronounced [ʔɪbraːˈhiːm]) was a prophet and messenger[2][3] of God and an ancestor of the Ismaili Arabs and Israelites.[2][4] Abraham plays a prominent role as a model of faith in Judaism, Christianity and Islam.[2] According to Muslim belief, Abraham fulfilled all the commandments and trials that God had nurtured him through throughout his life. As a result of his unshakable faith in God, Abraham was promised by God to be a leader for all the nations of the world.[5] The Qur’an praises Abraham as a model, example, obedience and not an idolater.[6] In this sense, Abraham has been described as representing “primitive man in universal devotion to divine reality before its fragmentation into religions separated by differences of form”.[7] : 18 Muslims believe that the Kaaba at Mecca was built by Abraham and his son Ishmael as the first house of worship on earth. The Islamic holiday ‘Eid ul-Adha is celebrated to commemorate Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son at God’s command and the end of the Hajj pilgrimage to the Kaaba.[7]

Muslims believe that Abraham, also known as Khalilullah (Arabic: خليل الله trans: friend of God), became the leader of the righteous in his day and that through him came Adnanite Arabs and Israelites. In the belief of Islam, Abraham was instrumental in cleansing the world of idolatry. Paganism was eradicated by Abraham in both the Arabian Peninsula and Canaan. He spiritually cleansed both places and physically sanctified the places of worship. Abraham and Isma’il (Ishmael) further established the rites of pilgrimage,[8] or Ḥajj (“pilgrimage”), which are still observed by Muslims today. Muslims claim that Abraham further asked God to bless both lines of his descendants, Isma’il and Isḥaq (Isaac), and to keep all his descendants under God’s protection.

Qur’anic report and Islamic tradition[edit]

family [edit]

Muslims claim that Abraham’s father was Aazar (Arabic: آزَر‎, romanized: Āzar), which may be derived from the Syriac Athar[9] known as Terah in the Hebrew Bible. Abraham had two children, Ishmael and Isaac, both of whom later became prophets. Abraham’s nephew is said to have been the messenger Lut (Lot), who was one of the other people who migrated with Abraham from their community. Abraham himself is said to have been a descendant of Nuh through his son Shem.[10]

Personality and Wisdom[ edit ]

Abraham’s personality and character are among the most profound in the entire Qur’an, and Abraham is specifically mentioned as a kind and compassionate man.[11] Abraham’s father is understood by Muslims as an evil, ignorant and idolatrous man who ignored all his son’s advice. The relationship between Abraham and his father, who is called Azar in the Qur’an, is central to Abraham’s story as understood by Muslims to establish a large part of Abraham’s personality. The Koran mentions that Abraham’s father threatened to stone his son if he didn’t stop preaching to the people.[12] Despite this, the Qur’an says that in his later years Abraham prayed to God to forgive the sins of all his descendants and his parents. Muslims have frequently cited Abraham’s character as an example of how kind one must be to people, and especially to one’s own parents. A similar example of Abraham’s compassionate nature is seen when Abraham began praying for the people of Sodom and Gomorrah after hearing of God’s plan for them through the angel Gabriel. Although the angel Gabriel told Abraham that God’s plan was the last word and therefore Abraham’s prayers would have no effect, the Qur’an nonetheless affirms Abraham’s benevolent nature through this particular event.[13]

youth [edit]

Ibrahim was born into a house of idolaters in the ancient city of Ur of the Chaldeans, probably the place called “Ur” in modern-day Iraq, in which case the idolaters would have been practitioners of the hypothesized ancient Mesopotamian religion.[14] His father was Azar a well-known idol sculptor who was revered by his people. As a small child, Ibrahim would watch his father sculpt these idols out of stones or wood. When his father was done with them, Ibrahim asked his father why they couldn’t move or respond to a request, and then taunted them; therefore his father always scolded him for not following the rituals of his ancestors and mocking their idols.[15]

Despite his rejection of idolatry, his father Azar still sent Ibrahim to sell his idols in the market. Once there, Ibrahim called out to passers-by, “Who will buy my idols? They won’t help you and they can’t hurt you! Who will buy my idols?” Then Ibrahim would mock the idols. He took them to the river, pressed their faces into the water and commanded them, “Drink! Drink!” Once again Ibrahim asked his father: “How can you worship what you do not see or hear or do yourself any good?” Azar replied: “Do you dare deny the gods of our people? Ibrahim replied, “May God forgive you. I will live no more with you and your idols.” After that, Ibrahim left his father’s house forever. During one of the many festivals that took place in the city, people would gather in its temple and make offerings to their idols. The most important temple of Ur is the Great Ziggurat, which can be seen today.[16] Ibrahim would ask them, “What do you worship? Do these idols hear when you call them? Can they help you or hurt you?” People would reply, “This is the way of our forefathers.” Ibrahim declared, “I am fed up with your gods! Verily I am their enemy.”[17] After a few years, Ibrahim became a young man. He still couldn’t believe his people worshiped the statues. He laughed whenever he saw them entering the temple, bowing their heads, silently offering the best of their food to the statues, weeping and begging their forgiveness. He began to get angry with his people, who failed to see that these are just stones that could neither do them any good nor harm.[18]

In search of the truth[edit]

One night Abraham went up the mountain, leaned on a rock and looked up at the sky. He saw a shining star and said to himself, “Could this be my Lord?” But when it went down, he said, “I don’t like the ones that go down.” The star was gone, so it couldn’t be God. God is always present. Then he saw the moon rise in splendor and said, “Could this be my Lord?” but the moon went down too. At daybreak he saw the sun rise and said, “Could this be my Lord? But when the sun also went down, he said: “O my people! I am free from everything that you associate with God as a partner! I have turned my face to God, who created the heavens and the earth, and I will never associate partners with God. Our Lord is the Creator of the heavens and the earth and everything in between. He has the power to make the stars rise and set.” After this explanation, Abraham then heard God calling to him, “O Abraham.” Abraham trembled and said, “Here I am, O my Lord!” God replied, “ submit to Me! Be a Muslim!” Abraham fell to the ground crying. He said, “I submit to the Lord of the universe!” Abraham prostrated himself until nightfall. Then he got up and went back home at peace, confident that God had led him to the truth.

The Great Fire[edit]

The decision to have Abraham burned at the stake was endorsed by the temple priests and the king of Babylon, Nimrod. The news spread like fire across the kingdom and people came from all places to see the execution. A huge pit was dug and a large amount of wood was piled up. Then the largest fire man has ever seen was lit. The flames were so high in the sky that not even the birds could fly over them for fear of being burned themselves. Ibrahim’s hands and feet were tied and he was placed in a catapult ready to be thrown in. During this time, Angel Jibril came to him and said, “O Ibrahim! Ibrahim could have asked to be rescued from the fire or taken away, but Ibrahim replied, “God is sufficient for me, He is the best steward of my affairs.” The catapult was triggered and Ibrahim was thrown into the fire. Then God gave a command to the fire: “O fire! Be cool and safe for Ibrahim.” A miracle happened, the fire obeyed and only burned his chains. Abraham came out as if he were coming out of a garden, peaceful, his face alight and not a trace of smoke on his clothes. People watched in shock and exclaimed, “Amazing! Abraham’s God rescued him from the fire!” [citation needed]

Confrontation with Nimrod[edit]

The Koran describes a very brief conversation between an unjust ruler and Abraham.[19] Although the king is unnamed in the Qur’an and this fact has been acknowledged as least important in the narrative, outside the Qur’an, namely in some tafasir[20], this king has been suggested as Nimrod.[21] This tafsir by Ibn Kathir, a 14th-century scholar, has many embellishments in the narrative, such as Nimrod claiming divinity. The Tafsir describes Nimrod’s quarrel with Ibrahim, how he (Nimrod) became extremely angry and in his “complete unbelief and open rebellion” became a tyrant.[22]

According to the Roman-Jewish historian Flavius ​​Josephus, Nimrod was a man who set his will against that of God. Nimrod proclaimed himself a living god and was worshiped as such by his subjects. Nimrod’s wife Semiramis was also worshiped as a goddess at his side. (See also Ninus.) Before Abraham was born, an omen in the stars told Nimrod and his astrologers of the imminent birth of Abraham, which would put an end to idolatry. Nimrod therefore orders the killing of all newborns. However, Abraham’s mother escapes to the fields and secretly gives birth to a child. Flavius ​​Josephus mentions that Abraham confronts Nimrod and tells him face to face to stop his idolatry, whereupon Nimrod orders him to be burned at the stake. Nimrod has his subjects gather enough wood to burn Abraham in the greatest fire the world has ever seen. But when the fire is kindled and Abraham thrown into it, Abraham walks away unharmed. In Islam, there is debate as to whether the decision to have Ibrahim burned at the stake came from Nimrod and the Temple priests, or whether the people themselves became vigilantes and hatched the plan to have him burned at the stake. According to Muslim commentators, after Abraham survived the great fire, public awareness increased. Nimrod, the king of Babylon, felt that his throne was in danger and that he was losing power because a large part of society was beginning to believe in God and that Abraham was a prophet of God when he saw how Ibrahim was came out of the fire unscathed. Up until this point, Nimrod was pretending to be a god himself. Nimrod wanted to debate him and show his people that he, the king, is indeed the god and that Ibrahim was a liar. Nimrod asked Ibrahim, “What can your God do that I cannot?” Ibrahim replied: “My Lord is He who gives life and death.” Nimrod then shouted, “I give life and death! I can take a person off the street and have him executed, and I can grant my pardon to a person sentenced to death and save his life.” Abraham replied, “Well, my Lord God makes the sun rise in the east. Can you make them rise in the west?” Nimrod was confused. He was beaten at his own game, in his own territory, and in front of his own people. Abraham left him speechless and returned to his mission of calling people to worship God.[23][24]

This event has been called particularly important because, from a Muslim perspective, it almost foreshadowed the prophetic careers of future prophets, most notably the career of Moses. Abraham’s dispute with the king has been interpreted by some as a precursor to Moses’ preaching to Pharaoh. Just as the ruler who argued against Abraham claimed divinity, so did the pharaoh of the Exodus, who refused to hear Moses’ call and perished in the Red Sea. In this particular incident, scholars have further commented on Abraham’s wisdom by using “rational, wise, and purposeful” speech as opposed to pointless arguments.[25]

In the eyes of many Muslims, Abraham also symbolized the highest moral values ​​that are essential for every human being. The Qur’an details the account of the angels who came to tell Abraham about the birth of Ishmael. It is said that as soon as Abraham saw the messengers, he “had hastened to entertain them with a roast calf.”[26] This action has been interpreted by all scholars as exemplary; Many scholars have commented on this one act, saying that it symbolizes Abraham’s extraordinarily high moral level and is thus a model of how men in a similar situation should act. This incident only further reinforced the “compassionate” character of Abraham in Muslim theology.[27]

sacrifice [edit]

Ibrahim’s sacrifice; Timurid Anthology, 1410–1411

In the mainstream narrative, it is believed that Abraham’s dream of sacrificing his son was a command from God. The verse referred to (i.e. 37:104-105) is in Sura As-Saffat and the interpretation of the meaning in English is: “We cried to him: O ‘Ibrahiem, you have indeed fulfilled the vision. This is how we reward doers of good.” It is believed that Abraham dreamed that God commanded him to sacrifice his son, he agreed to obey God’s command and perform the sacrifice; however, God intervened and informed him that his sacrifice had been accepted.While there is no direct mention in the Qur’an of an animal (ram) replacing the boy, it does say that he is replaced by a “great sacrifice” (Zibhin azeem).[28] This great sacrifice shows the meaning of the ram that replaced Ibrahim’s son. Tafsir ibn Kathir records Ibn Abbas’ explanation of the verse according to Muhammad’s teachings. The explanation reads as follows:[29]

“And We redeemed him with a great sacrifice” (37:107). It was narrated that Ibn ‘Abbas (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “A ram that grazed in Paradise for forty years.” Tafsir Ibn Kathir[29]

The Tafsir goes on to say that the ram’s horns survived until the time of Muhammad:[29]

Imam Ahmad reported that Safiyyah bint Shaybah said: “A woman from Bani Sulaym, who was the midwife of most of the people in our household, told me that the Messenger of Allah sent for ‘Uthman bin Talhah, may Allah be pleased with him . ‘ On one occasion she said: ‘I asked ‘Uthman: ‘Why did the Prophet call you?’ He said: ‘The Messenger of Allah said to me: I saw the horns of the ram when I entered the house (d Ka’bah ), and I forgot to tell you to cover them up; Cover them, for there should be nothing in the house to distract the worshiper.)”’ Sufyan said, “The ram’s horns remained stuck in the house until it was burned, and they were also burned.” The Quraysh had inherited the horns of the ram that Ibrahim sacrificed and they were passed down from generation to generation until the Messenger of Allah was sent and Allah knows best.

From that day on, once a year on Eid al-Adha, Muslims around the world slaughter an animal to commemorate Abraham’s sacrifice and to remember self-denial in the path of God, and they shared the meat with friends, family, the poor and needy. This is called qurbani (“sacrifice”).[30]

Tabari’s account [ edit ]

The classic Qur’anic exegete and historian Tabari offered two versions that Abraham was commanded to sacrifice. According to the first strand, Abraham desired a righteous son, whereupon an angel appeared to him and told him that he would have a righteous son, but when he was born and reached puberty he had to be sacrificed to God. Later, the angel Hagar appeared to inform her of the forthcoming child. When Ishmael was grown, someone appeared to Abraham and challenged him to keep his vow.[31]

When Ishmael grew up, someone appeared to Abraham in a dream and said to him, “Keep the vow you made! God has given you a boy from Hagar so that you can sacrifice him.” So he said to Ishmael, “Let’s go, make a sacrifice to God!” So ​​he took a knife and a rope and walked with him until they found a place in the mountains. The boy said to him: “O father! Where is your sacrifice?” He replied: “O my son, I saw in a dream that I am going to slaughter you. So pay attention to what you see.” He said: “O my father, do as you have been commanded ; you will find me, Insha-Allah (if God willing), one of the patient ones.” Ishmael then said to him: “Fasten my bonds lest I shall endeavor to draw back thy clothes lest any of my blood be spilled upon it , for Hagar will see it and be saddened. Hurry! Pass the knife over my throat so that death will be easy for me. When you come to Hagar, greet her.” Abraham began to approach him and tied him up while he wept. Ishmael wept too, so that the tears gathered on Ishmael’s cheeks. He then drew the knife down his throat, but the knife did not cut because God had placed a copper plate on Ishmael’s throat. Seeing this, he turned it onto his forehead and scratched it on the back of his head as well. God has said in Qur’an 37:103, “When they both submitted and he threw it on his forehead, they handed the matter over to God.” One A voice called out, “Abraham, you have fulfilled the vision!” He turned and behold, there was a ram. He took it and let go of his son and he bent over his son and said, “Oh my son, today you have been given to me.” That comes in God’s Word in Quran 37:107: We ransomed him with a great sacrifice.

The second strand, provided by Tabari, states that Abraham was about to sacrifice his son Ishmael and Iblis appeared in the form of a man to prevent the sacrifice.

Iblis (Satan), who had taken the form of a man, said: “Where are you going, O Shaikh?” He replied: “I am going to these mountains because I have to do something there.” Iblis said: “By God, I saw that Shaytan came to you in a dream and ordered you to slaughter this little son of yours. And you intend to do this slaughter!” Then Abraham recognized him and said: “Get away from me, enemy of God! By God, I will surely continue to do what my Lord has commanded.” Iblis, the enemy of God, gave up on Abraham, but then he encountered Ishmael, who was behind Abraham, carrying the wood and the great knife. He said to him: “O young man, do you know where your father is taking you?” He said: “To gather wood for our family from the mountains.” He replied: “By God, his real intention is to to sacrifice you!” He said, “Why?!” Iblis replied, “He claims that his lord commanded him!” Ishmael replied, “He must do what his lord commands, absolutely!” turned away, Iblis went to Hagar, the mother of Ishmael, who was still at home. Iblis said to her: “O mother of Ishmael! Do you know where Abraham is going with Ishmael?” She replied, “They went to gather wood for us in the mountains.” He said, “He actually went to sacrifice him!” She replied, “It can Not be ! He is too kind and loving to him to do that!” Iblis said, “He claims that God commanded him to do that!” Hagar said, “If his Lord commanded him to do that, then he must submit to the command of God!” So the enemy of God returned angry at his inability to influence Abraham’s family as he wished.

miracle [edit]

Abraham encountered several miracles from God during his life. The Qur’an records some important miracles, although different interpretations have been ascribed to the passages. Some of the miracles recorded in the Quran are:

Abraham was shown the kingdom of heaven and earth. [32]

Abraham and the miracle of the birds. [33]

Abraham was thrown into a fire that became “cool” and “peaceful” to him.[34]

The first passage has been interpreted both literally, allegorically, and otherwise. Although some commentators feel that this passage referred to a physical miracle in which Abraham was physically shown the entire Kingdom of Heaven (Jannah),[35] others feel that it referred to Abraham’s spiritual understanding; These latter scholars claim that the Chaldeans were adept at observing the stars, but Abraham, who lived among them, saw beyond the physical world and into a higher spiritual realm. The second passage has a mainstream interpretation among Qur’anic commentators that Abraham took four birds and dismembered them and placed pieces of each on nearby hills; when he called to them, each piece connected and four birds flew back to Abraham.[36] This miracle, as related in the Qur’anic passage, was a demonstration by God to show Abraham how God gave life to the dead. Since the physical cutting of the birds is not implied in the passage, some commentators have offered alternative interpretations, but all contend that the miracle served the same demonstrative purpose of showing Abraham the power God has to raise the dead to life awaken.[37] The third passage has also been interpreted both literally and metaphorically, or in some cases both. Commentators state that the “fire” refers to the main aspects. They asserted that the fire first referred to the physical flame from which Abraham was saved unharmed. The commentators went on to say that second, the fire refers to the “fire of persecution” from which Abraham was saved when he thereafter left his people with his wife Sarah and nephew Lot.[38]

title[edit]

Abraham is given the title Khalilullah (Arabic: خَلِیْل‌ ٱلله‎, romanized: Ḫalīl Allāḥ, literally “friend of God”) in Islam.[4] The Quran says:

Who can be better in religion than one who surrenders himself totally to Allah, doing good and following in faith the way of Abraham, the true? Because Allah took Abraham as a friend. Quran, Sura 4 (An-Nisa) Ayat 125[39]

This particular title of Abraham is so famous in Muslim culture and tradition that in the areas in and around Mecca Abraham is often referred to simply as The Friend.[40] This title “friend of God” is not exclusive to Islamic theology. Although the other religious traditions do not emphasize this, Abraham is referred to as the friend of God in 2 Chronicles and in the book of Isaiah in both the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)[41] and the New Testament[42] ]

Relationship with Islamic shrines[ edit ]

One of the most important characteristics of Abraham in Islamic theology is his role as the builder of the Kaaba. Although tradition says that Adam built the original Kaaba, which was destroyed by the great flood in Noah’s time, Abraham is believed to have rebuilt it in its original form. From a Muslim perspective, the Qur’an merely confirms or reinforces the laws of pilgrimage. The rites were instituted by Abraham and for all Muslims the pilgrimage is a way of returning to the perfection of Abraham’s faith.[43] Just as Medina is referred to as the “City of the Prophet [Muhammad]” or simply the “City of Muhammad,” Mecca is often referred to as the “City of Abraham” because Abraham’s reformation is said to have taken the monotheistic place in Mecca.[7] Likewise, Islamic belief connects the original sanctuary of Al-Aqsa in the Old City of Jerusalem with Abraham.[44]

Suhoof[ edit ]

The Qur’an refers to certain scrolls of Abraham. All Muslim scholars generally agree that no scrolls survive from Abraham and thus this is an indication of lost writing.[45] The Scrolls of Abraham are understood by Muslims to refer to specific revelations that Abraham received and which he would then have transmitted in writing. The exact content of the revelation is not described in the Qur’an.

The 87th chapter of the Qur’an, Sura al-Ala, concludes by stating that the subject of the sura was in the earlier writings of Abraham and Moses. It easily points to what Islam says was in the previous scriptures:

Therefore admonish, if the admonition benefits (the hearer).

The admonition is received by those who fear (God):

But it is avoided by the unfortunate,

Who will enter the Great Fire,

In which they will neither die nor live.

But those will prosper who purify themselves

And glorify the name of their protector and (lift up their hearts) in prayer.

Nay (behold), you prefer the life of this world;

But the hereafter is better and more permanent.

And this is written in the books of the earliest (Revelation),-

The Books of Abraham and Moses. Quran 87:9-19

Surat an-Najm mentions some more subjects of the earlier writings of Abraham and Musa (Moses):

No, isn’t he familiar with what’s in the books of Moses?

And of Abraham fulfilling his obligations?

Namely, that no burden bearer can bear another’s burden;

This man can have nothing but what he aspires to;

That (the fruit) of his striving will soon be in sight:

Then he will be rewarded with a full reward;

That is the ultimate goal for your Lord;

That it is he who grants laughter and tears;

That it is he who grants death and life;

That he created in pairs, male and female,

Of a seed when housed (in its place);

That he promised a second creation (raising the dead);

That it is he who gives wealth and satisfaction;

That he is the lord of Sirius (the mighty star);

And that it is he who destroyed the (mighty) old ‘Ad (people),

And Thamud did not grant them eternal life.

And before them, the people of Noah, because they (all) were the most unrighteous and shameless transgressors,

And He destroyed the fallen cities (of Sodom and Gomorrah).

So that (ruins unknown) they covered.

Then which of the gifts of your Lord (O man) will you dispute?

This is a Warner from the old (series of) Warners!

The ever approaching (judgment) draws near:

No (soul), but God can expose it.

Do you then wonder at this consideration?

And will you laugh and not cry, –

Are you wasting your time with vanities?

But prostrate yourself before God and worship (Him)! Quran 53:36-62

However, some scholars [by whom?] suggested it was a reference to the Sefer Yetzirah, since Jewish tradition generally ascribed its authorship to Abraham. [Citation needed] However, other scholars wrote of a specific testament of Abraham, which they declared was available in Muhammad’s time.[46]

The Qur’an contains numerous references to Abraham, his life, prayers and traditions and has a dedicated chapter called Ibrahim. In a relevant note, Surat al-Kahf was revealed as a response from God to the Jews who questioned Muhammad about past events. Here God instructed Muhammad directly in Surah Al-Kahf not to consult the Jews to verify the three stories they asked about.

Therefore, do not engage in controversy about them unless it is a clear matter, and do not consult any of them about (the affair of) the sleepers. Quran 18:22

The reason for God explaining himself relates to what needs to be verified in another verse of al-Kahf:

We tell you their story in truth: They were youths who believed in their Lord and We advanced them in guidance: Qur’an 18:13

Regarding consultation with the People of the Book, it is also narrated by Abu Huraira in a hadith:

Narrated by Abu Huraira: The People of the Book (Jews) used to recite the Torah in Hebrew and they used to explain it to the Muslims in Arabic. Thereupon the Apostle of God said: “Do not believe or deny the People of the Book, but say: We believe in God and what has been revealed to us.” Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60 :12

Therefore, it is not necessary to refer to an attribution of the Scrolls of Abraham by the People of the Book.

importance as a patriarch

Abraham ist auch als Führer des Islam und als Patriarch des islamischen Glaubens äußerst wichtig. Muslime erkennen Abraham als den Vorfahren an, durch den viele andere Propheten und Heilige (Wali) kamen, darunter Moses, Jesus (Isa) und Muhammad. Der Koran listet im sechsten Kapitel einige der größten Persönlichkeiten auf, die durch Abrahams Nachkommen zu haben sind:

Das war die Argumentation über Uns, die Wir Abraham (zur Verwendung) gegen sein Volk gaben: Wir erheben, wen Wir wollen, Grad um Grad, denn dein Herr ist voller Weisheit und Wissen.

Wir gaben ihm Isaak und Jakob, alle (drei) rechtgeleitet, und vor ihm leiteten Wir Noah recht, und unter seinen Nachkommen David und Salomo und Hiob und Joseph und Moses und Aaron: So belohnen Wir diejenigen, die Gutes tun:

Und Zakariya und John und Jesus und Elias: alle in den Reihen der Rechtschaffenen:

Und Isma’il und Elisha und Jona und Lot, und allen haben Wir Gunst über den Nationen gegeben:

(Zu ihnen) und zu ihren Vätern und Nachkommen und Brüdern: Wir haben sie erwählt und wir haben sie auf einen geraden Weg geführt. Koran, Sure 6 (Al-An’am), Ayat 83-87[47]

Abrahams Erzählung im Koran bezieht sich indirekt auf seine Rolle als einer der großen Patriarchen. Der Koran sagt, dass Gott Abraham zu einem „Imam der Nationen“[5] und zum Vater der Muslime gemacht hat[48] und seine Erzählung berichtet, dass er für seine Nachkommen betete.[49] Der Koran sagt weiter, dass Abrahams Nachkommen „das Buch und die Weisheit“ gegeben wurden,[50] und diese Tatsache wird in einem Vers bekräftigt, der besagt, dass Abrahams Familie eine von denen war, in denen die Gabe der Prophetie als allgemeines Merkmal etabliert wurde.[ 51] Der Koran betont Abrahams Bedeutung, da er sagt, dass Abrahams Familie, Noah, Adam und die Familie von Amram die vier waren, die von Gott über alle Welten erwählt wurden.[52] Aufgrund seiner Bedeutung als Patriarch wird Abraham manchmal der Titel Vater der Propheten gegeben. Von Abrahams unmittelbaren Söhnen stellt der Koran wiederholt die Gaben fest, die Gott ihnen verliehen hat. Ismael wird zusammen mit Elisha und Dhul-Kifl (möglicherweise Hesekiel) als „der Gesellschaft der Guten“[53] und als einer der Männer angesehen, denen „die Gunst vor den Nationen“ zuteil wurde.[54] Außerdem , Ismael wird als „treu zu dem, was er versprochen hat, und er war ein Gesandter (und) ein Prophet“ beschrieben.[55] Ebenso sagt der Koran über Isaak, dass er „zur Gesellschaft der Auserwählten und Guten“ gehörte. [56] und war „ein Prophet, einer der Gerechten.“[57] und beschreibt ihn weiter als „mit Macht und Vision“.[58] Abraham wird von allen Muslimen gedacht. Wie bei jedem Propheten und Apostel ist es islamischer Brauch, „Friede sei mit ihm“ zu sagen, nachdem Abrahams Name gesagt wurde. An Abrahams einzigartige Stellung als Erbauer der Ka‘ba sowie als Begründer der Pilgerriten wird indirekt erinnert, wenn Muslime die Pilgerreise oder Hajj in Mekka durchführen. Muslime opfern (Qurban) ein Haustier an Eid al-Adha, was zum Teil getan wird, um an Abrahams Tapferkeit während seines Prozesses wegen der Beinahe-Opferung seines Sohnes zu erinnern. Muslims further mention Abraham in their canonical prayer every day, in which they ask God to bless Muhammad’s family as He blessed Abraham’s family.

Burial place [ edit ]

Muslims believe that Abraham was buried, along with his wife Sarah, at the Cave of the Patriarchs in the Old City of Hebron, the West Bank. Known to Muslims as the Sanctuary of Abraham it is also thought to be the burial site of his son Isaac, his wife Rebecca, their son Jacob, and his wife Leah.[59][60]

Exterior view of the Cave of the Patriarchs in the Old City of Hebron, the Holy Land

Cenotaph over Abraham’s grave in his mosque

In the section of the cave which is a mosque, this grate allows visitors to look down into a shaft measuring 40 feet (12 metres), which leads to the ground level of the cave where Abraham and Sarah are buried

Narrative in the Quran [ edit ]

References[edit]

There are numerous references to Abraham in the Quran, including, twice, to the Scrolls of Abraham;[61] in the latter passage, it is mentioned that Abraham “fulfilled his engagements?-“,[62] a reference to all the trials that Abraham had succeeded in. In a whole series of chapters, the Qur’an relates how Abraham preached to his community as a youth and how he specifically told his father, named Azar,[1] to leave idol-worship and come to the worship of God.[63] Some passages of the Quran, meanwhile, deal with the story of how God sent angels to Abraham with the announcement of the punishment to be imposed upon Lot’s people in Sodom and Gomorrah.[64] Other verses mention the near-sacrifice of Abraham’s son,[28] whose name is not given but is presumed to be Ishmael as the following verses mention the birth of Isaac.[7] The Quran also repeatedly establishes Abraham’s role as patriarch and mentions numerous important descendants who came through his lineage, including Isaac,[65] Jacob[66] and Ishmael.[67] In the later chapters of the Quran, Abraham’s role becomes yet more prominent. The Quran mentions that Abraham and Ishmael were the reformers who set up the Ka‘bah in Mecca as a center of pilgrimage for monotheism[68] The Quran consistently refers to Islam as “the Religion of Abraham” (millat Ibrahim)[69] and Abraham is given a title as Hanif (The Pure, “true in Faith” or “upright man”).[70] The Quran also mentions Abraham as one whom God took as a friend (Khalil),[39] hence Abraham’s title in Islam, Khalil-Allah (Friend of God). The term is considered by some to be a derivation of the patriarch’s title, Qal El (Hebrew: קל-אל, “Voice of God”).[71][72] Other instances in the Quran which are described in a concise manner are the rescue of Abraham from the fire into which he was thrown by his people’;[73][74] his pleading for his father;[75] his quarrel with an unrighteous and powerful king[76] and the miracle of the dead birds.[33]

All these events and more have been discussed with more details in Muslim tradition, and especially in the Stories of the Prophets and works of universal Islamic theology.[77] Certain episodes from the life of Abraham have been more heavily detailed in Islamic text, such as the arguments between Abraham and the evil king, Nimrod, the near-sacrifice of his son, and the story of Hagar and Ishmael, which Muslims commemorate when performing pilgrimage in Mecca. An important Islamic religious holiday, Eid al-Adha, commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael as an act of obedience to God, before God intervened to provide him with a sheep to sacrifice instead.[78] In some cases, some believe these legends in Islamic text may have influenced later Jewish tradition.[79]

Verses [ edit ]

See also[edit]

Notes [edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

General [edit]

Abraham and the Kaaba [ edit ]

Martin Lings, Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now , Archetype

, Archetype Leila Azzam, Lives of the Prophets, Abraham and the Kaaba, Suhail Academy

The Arabic term means “lord”, “authority”, “overseer” or “protector”.

This article is about the Islamic concept of saints. For other uses, see Wali (disambiguation)

A wali (wali Arabic: وَلِيّ, walīy; plural أَوْلِيَاء, ʾawliyāʾ), the Arabic word variously translated “master”, “authority”, “guardian”, “protector”[1][2], becomes the most common used by Muslims to refer to an Islamic saint, otherwise denoted by the more literal “friend of God”.[1][3][4]

When the Arabic definite article “al” ( ال ) is added, it refers to one of the names of God in Islam, Allah – al-Walī ( الْوليّ ), meaning “the helper, friend”.

In the traditional Islamic understanding of saints, the saint is portrayed as someone “marked of [special] divine favor…[and] holiness” and who is specifically “chosen by God and endowed with extraordinary gifts such as the ability to work miracles.” “.[5] The doctrine of the saints was articulated by Muslim scholars very early in Islamic history,[6][7][5][8] and certain verses of the Qur’an and certain hadiths were regarded by early Muslim thinkers as “documentary evidence “[5] interpreted ] of the existence of saints. Tombs of saints throughout the Muslim world became – especially after 1200 AD – centers of pilgrimage for masses of Muslims seeking their baraka (blessings).[9]

Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written at the time when the Islamic mystical trend of Sufism was beginning its rapid spread, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the most important saints in orthodox Sunni Islam were the early Sufi mystics, such as Hasan von Basra (d. 728), Farqad Sabakhi (d. 729), Dawud Tai (d. 777–781), Rabia of Basra (d. 801), Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910) .[1] From the 12th to the 14th centuries “the general veneration of saints, both among peoples and among rulers, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism…in religious orders or brotherhoods”.[10] In the current expressions of Islamic piety of the time, the saint was understood as “a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection … found lasting expression in the teaching he bequeathed to his disciples.”[10] In many prominent Sunni creeds of the time, such as the famous Tahawi creed (c. 900) and the Nasafi creed (c. 1000), belief in the existence and miracles of saints was presented as a “requirement” for being one orthodox Muslim believer.[11][12]

Aside from the Sufis, the pre-eminent saints in traditional Islamic piety are the Companions of the Prophet, their successors, and the successors of successors.[13] Furthermore, the Prophets and Messengers in Islam are also believed to be saints by definition, although they are seldom referred to as such to avoid confusion between them and ordinary saints. Since the Prophets are glorified by Muslims as the greatest of all mankind, it is a general tenet of Sunni belief that a single Prophet is greater than all the regular saints combined.[14] In short, it is believed that “every prophet is a saint, but not every saint is a prophet.”[15]

In the modern world, the traditional Sunni and Shia notion of saints has been challenged by puritanical and rejuvenating Islamic movements such as the Salafi movement, Wahhabism, and Islamic modernity, all three of which more or less form “a front against the worship and theory of the saints.”[1] As has been noted by scholars, the development of these movements has indirectly led to a trend among some mainstream Muslims to resist “acknowledging the existence of Muslim saints altogether or … [ their presence and worship as unacceptable deviations”.[16] Yet despite these opposing schools of thought, the classical doctrine of veneration of saints continues to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world today, playing an important role in the daily expression of piety among large sections of the Muslim population in Muslim countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal, Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Morocco[1] and in countries with significant Islamic populations such as India, China, Russia and the Balkans[1].

names [edit]

Regarding the rendering of the Arabic Walī by the English “Saint”, prominent scholars such as Gibril Haddad have considered this an appropriate translation, with Haddad calling some Muslims’ reluctance to use “Saint” for Walī “a flimsy objection”.. .for [this is] – like “religion” (din), “believer” (mu’min), “prayer” (salat), etc. – [a] generic term for holiness and holy persons, although there is no confusion for Muslims about their specific points of reference in Islam, namely: the reality of iman with fear of God and those who possess these qualities.”[17] [better source needed] In Persian, which has become the second most influential and widely spoken language in the Islamic world from Arabic[1] the general title for a saint or spiritual master pīr (Persian: پیر, lit. “old [person]”, “elder”[18]).[1] Although the ramifications of this term carry the connotations of a general “saint”[1], it is often used to specifically designate a spiritual leader of some sort.[1]

Among Indian Muslims, the Hindi title pīr baba (पीर बाबा) is commonly used to refer to Sufi masters or similarly honored saints.[1] In addition, saints are sometimes referred to as “Hazrat” in the Persian or Urdu languages.[1] In Islamic mysticism, the role of a pīr is to guide and instruct his disciples on the mystical path.[1] Hence, the main difference between the use of walī and pīr is that the former does not imply a saint who is also a spiritual master with disciples, while the latter does so directly through its connotations of ‘elders’.[1] Other Arabic and Persian words that also often have the same connotations as pīr and are therefore sometimes also translated into English as ‘saint’ include murshid (Arabic: مرشد, meaning ‘guide’ or ‘teacher’), sheikh and Sarkar (Persian word for “master”).[1]

In the Turkish Islamic countries, saints were referred to by many terms, including Arabic walī, Persian s̲h̲āh and pīr, and Turkish alternatives such as baba in Anatolia, ata in Central Asia (both meaning “father”), and eren or ermis̲h̲ (< ermek "to reach). , attain”) or yati̊r (“one who settles down”) in Anatolia.[1] Their tombs, meanwhile, are “designated in terms of Arabic or Persian origin, alluding to the idea of ​​pilgrimage (mazār, ziyāratgāh), tomb (ḳabr, maḳbar), or domed mausoleum (gunbad, ḳubba). But such tombs are also denoted by terms usually used for Dervish monasteries or a specific part thereof (tekke in the Balkans, langar, "refectory" and ribāṭ in Central Asia) or by an attribute of the saint (pīr, "venerable, respectable", in Azerbaijan ) ."[1] history [edit] According to various traditional Sufi interpretations of the Qur'an, the concept of sanctity is clearly stated.[19] However, some modern scholars claim that the Qur'an does not explicitly outline any doctrine or theory of the saints.[1] In the Qur'an, the adjective walī is applied to God in the sense that he is the "friend" of all believers (Q2:257).[20] However, certain Qur'anic verses were interpreted by early Islamic scholars as referring to a special, exalted group of holy people.[5] These included 10:62:[5] "Verily, friends of God (awliyāa l-lahi): they shall not fear, nor shall they mourn"[5] and 5:54, which refers to God's love for those who love him.[5] Additionally, some scholars[1] interpret 4:69: “Whoever obeys God and the Messenger, they are with those on whom God shows favor: the prophets and the ṣidīqīna and the martyrs and the righteous. The best company they are, "to bear a reference to holy people who were not prophets and were inferior to them.[1] The word ṣidīqīna in this verse literally means "the truthful ones" or "the righteous ones" and was taken from the early often interpreted by Islamic thinkers as meaning "saints", with the famous Qur'an translator Marmaduke Pickthall rendering it as "saints" in their interpretations of Scripture.[1] In addition, the Qur'an referred to the miracles of saints who were not prophets, like Khidr (18:65-18:82) and the people of the Cave (18:7-18:26), which also led many early scholars to conclude that there must be a group of venerable people ranking below the Prophets , yet be exalted by God.[1] The references in the corpus of hadith literature to genuine saints such as the pre-Islamic Jurayj̲,[21][22][23][24] only lent further credibility to this early understanding of saints.[1] Collected histories of the “Lives or Vitae of the Saints” began to be “compiled and compiled at an early stage”[1] by many regular Muslim scholars, including Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 894),[1] wrote in the a ninth-century work entitled Kitāb al-Awliyāʾ (Lives of the Saints), which constitutes "the earliest [complete] compilation on the subject of the friends of God" [1] Stories of the saints were transmitted through oral tradition; but after the writing of his work, many Islamic scholars began to write down the widely circulated reports,[1] with later scholars such as Abu Nuʿaym al-Isfahani (d. 948) making extensive use of Ibn Abi al-Dunya's work in his own Ḥilyat al- awliyāʾ (The adornment of the saints).[1] Furthermore, the Kitāb al-Kas̲h̲f wa 'l-bayān by the early Baghdadi Sufi mystic Abu Sa'id al-Kharraz (d. 899) indicates that a coherent understanding of the Muslim saints already existed, with al -Kharraz dedicating much room for distinction between the virtues and miracles (karāmāt) of the prophets and the saints.[1] The genre of hagiography (manāḳib) grew in popularity over time, as many prominent Islamic thinkers of the Middle Ages devoted large works to collecting stories of various saints, or focused on "the wondrous aspects of life, the miracles, or at least the child prodigies of a [particular ] Ṣūfī or a saint believed to be endowed with miraculous powers.”[25] In the late ninth century, major thinkers of Sunni Islam formally articulated the previously oral teachings of an entire hierarchy of saints, with the first written account of that hierarchy being penned by al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 912).[1] With the general consensus of Islamic scholars of the time that the ulema were responsible for upholding the "exoteric" part of Islamic orthodoxy, including the disciplines of law and jurisprudence, while the Sufis were responsible for teaching the religion's deepest inner truths articulate,[1 ] later prominent mystics such as Ibn Arabi (d. 1240) only further reinforced this idea of ​​a sacred hierarchy, and the notion of "types" of saints became a mainstay of Sunni mystical thought, with such types being the ṣiddīqūn ( "the truthful") ") and the abdāl ("the substitute holy ones"), among others.[1] Many of these concepts appear in writing well before al-Tirmidhi and Ibn 'Arabi; the idea of ​​the Abdāl, for example, appears as early as the Musnad from Ibn Hanbal (d. 855), where the word denotes a group of eminent saints “whose number would remain constant, with one at s one death is always replaced by another."[26] In fact, Ibn Hanbal is reported to have inspired his contemporary, the mystic Maruf Karkhi (d. 815-20), specifically identified as one of the abdal, saying, "He is one of the substitute saints, and his supplication is heard."[27] A Discourse between Muslim Sages (c. 1630), probably executed by the An Mughal miniature of (c. 1630), probably executed by the court painter Govārdhan. From the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries, "the general veneration of saints, both among peoples and among rulers, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism—the mysticism of Islam—into religious orders or brotherhoods."[10] In general, Islamic piety by this period became the saint was understood as "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... found lasting expression in the teachings bequeathed to his disciples."[10] By virtue of his spiritual wisdom, the saint was accorded reverence in medieval Islam, "and that is it , which ... brought about his 'canonization', and not some ecclesiastical institution" as in Christianity.[10] In fact, the latter point represents one of the crucial differences between Islamic and Christian veneration of saints, for saints are venerated in Islam by unanimous consensus or by popular applause, much like all those Christian saints venerated earlier by the institution of canonization.[ 10] In fact, belief in the existence of saints became such an important part of medieval Islam[11][12] that many of the major creeds articulated during this period, such as the famous creed of Tahawi, explicitly stated it as a prerequisite to be an "orthodox" Muslim, believing in the existence and worship of saints and in the traditional narratives of their lives and miracles.[14][11][12][3] Hence we find that even medieval critics of the widespread practice of venerating the tombs of saints, such as Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), never denied the existence of saints as such, with the Hanbali jurist stating: “The wonders of the Saints are absolutely true and correct, by the acceptance of all Muslim scholars, and the Qur'an has pointed this out in various places, and the sayings of the Prophet have mentioned it, and whoever denies the miraculous power of the saints is only people who are innovators and their followers."[28] In the words of a contemporary academic, virtually all Muslims of the time believed that "the lives of the saints and their miracles were unimpeachable."[29] In the modern world, the traditional conception of saints in Islam has been challenged by the puritanical and rejuvenating Islamic movements of Salafism and Wahhabism, whose influence "has formed a front against the veneration and theory of saints."[1] For the followers of The Wahhabi For example, ideology, the practice of worshiping saints, appears as an "abomination" because they see it as a form of idolatry.[1] For this reason, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which adheres to the Wahhabi faith, "destroyed the tombs of the saints wherever possible" during its expansion in the Arabian Peninsula from the 18th century onwards. ][Note 1] As noted by scholars, the development of these movements has indirectly led to a trend among some mainstream Muslims to also resist "acknowledging the existence of Muslim saints altogether, or... seeing their presence and veneration as unacceptable deviations.”[16] At the same time, the Islamic modern movement has also opposed traditional veneration of saints, with many proponents of this ideology deeming the practice “both un-Islamic and backward…rather than the integral part of Islam that transcends it.” for a millennium.”[30] Despite the presence of these opposing currents of thought, the classical doctrine of veneration of saints still thrives in many parts of the Islamic world today as a vital part of the daily devotion of large parts of Muslim countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal , Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia etc nd Morocco,[1] as well as in countries with significant Islamic populations such as India, China, Russia and the Balkans.[1] Definitions[edit] The general definition of the Muslim saint in classical texts is that he represents a "[friend of God] distinguished by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness" who is specially "chosen by God and endowed with extraordinary gifts is, such as the ability to perform miracles."[5] Additionally, in traditional hagiographies, the saint is also portrayed as someone who "in some way...respects the good qualities of his friend, i. Abilities and abilities.”[1] Among the classical scholars, Qushayri (d. 1073) defined the saint as one “whose obedience attains endurance without the interference of sin; whom God keeps and protects in an abiding manner from the failure of sin by the power of obedience.”[31] Elsewhere, the same author cited an older tradition to convey his understanding of the destiny of the saints, which states: “The saints of God are those who, when seen, are reminded of God."[32] Meanwhile, al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 869), the most important 9th-century expositor of the doctrine, posited six common characteristics of true saints (which, according to the author, do not necessarily apply to all, but nevertheless indicate an important part of them), which are: (1) when people see him, they are automatically reminded of God; (2) anyone who approaches him hostilely will be destroyed; (3) he has the gift of clairvoyance (firāsa); (4) he receives divine inspiration (ilhām), strictly distinct from actual revelation (waḥy),[1][33][34] the latter being something received only by the prophets; (5) he can perform miracles (karāmāt) with God's permission, which may vary from holy to holy, but also miracles such as walking on water (al-mas̲h̲y ʿalā 'l-māʾ) and the shortening of space and time ( ṭayy al-arḍ); and (6) he connects with Khidr.[35][1] Al-Tirmidhi also states that although the saint is not sinless like the prophets, he or she can still be "preserved from sin" (maḥfūz) by the grace of God.[1] Contemporary Sufism scholar Martin Lings described the Islamic saints as "the great incarnations of the Islamic ideal...spiritual giants with whom almost every generation has been blessed."[36] Classic certificates[ edit ] The doctrine of saints and their miracles seems to have been taken for granted by many of the most important authors of the Islamic Golden Age (c. 700–1400)[1] as well as by many prominent late medieval scholars. [1] The phenomena in traditional Islam can be attributed, at least in part, to the writings of many of the most prominent Sunni theologians and physicians of the classical and medieval periods,[1] many of whom regarded the saint's faith as "orthodox" doctrine.[1] Examples of classical testimonies are: "God has saints (awliyā) whom He has specially distinguished by His friendship and chosen to be the governors of His kingdom... He has made the saints governors of the universe... By the blessing of their coming the rain falls from heaven, and by the purity of their life the plants sprout from the earth, and by their spiritual influence the Muslims win victories over the concealers of truth” (Hujwiri [d. 1072-7]; Sunni Hanafi jurist and mystic) [1] ) whom He has specially distinguished by His friendship and chosen to be the governors of His kingdom... He has made the saints governors of the universe... By the blessing of their coming the rain falls from heaven and by the purity of their lives, the plants sprout from the earth, and by their spiritual influence the Muslims gain victories over the concealers of truth” (Hujwiri [d. 1072-7]; Sunni Hanafi jurist and mystic) “The miracles of the saints ( awliyā ) are a reality. The miracle appears in the name of the saint, contradicting the ordinary course of things... And such a thing is taken as a proving miracle in the name of the Messenger to one of his people from whom this act appears, because it is obvious it is, that he is a saint, and he could never be a saint unless he were right in his religion; and his religion is the creed of the message of the Messenger” (al-Nasafī [d. 1142], Creed XV; Sunni Hanafi theologian) [37] ) are reality. The miracle appears in the name of the saint, contradicting the ordinary course of things... And such a thing is taken as a proving miracle in the name of the Messenger to one of his people from whom this act appears, because it is obvious it is, that he is a saint, and he could never be a saint unless he were right in his religion; and his religion is the confession of the message of the Messenger” (al-Nasafī [d. 1142], XV; Sunni Hanafi theologian) “The miracles of the saints are absolutely true and correct and are accepted by all Muslim scholars. The Qur'an has pointed this out in various places and the hadiths of the Prophet have mentioned it, and whoever denies the miraculous power of the saints is an innovator or a follower of innovators” (Ibn Taymiyya [d. 1328], Mukhtasar al-Fatawa al -Masriyya; Sunni Hanbali theologian and legal adviser)[38] Searching for blessings[edit] The rationale for pilgrims worshiping deceased saints in a blessing (barakah) even though the saints will not rise from the dead until the Day of Resurrection (Yawm ad-Dīn) may come from the hadith stating that “the Prophets live in their graves and they pray". devoutly.) According to the Islamic historian Jonathan A.C. Brown considers "saints no different" from prophets, "as able in death to answer invocations for help" as they were in life.[9] Types and Hierarchy[ edit ] The two poet saints Hafez and Saadi Shirazi (circa 17th century), probably executed by a certain Muhammad Qāsim A drawing of (circa 17th century), probably executed by a certain Muhammad Qāsim Saints were regarded as different "types" in the classical Islamic tradition.[1] Aside from their earthly distinctions in terms of their temporal duties (i.e., jurist, hadith scholar, judge, traditionist, historian, ascetic, poet), saints have also been cosmologically distinguished in terms of their heavenly function or position.[1] In Islam, however, the saints are depicted in traditional texts as fulfilling separate heavenly functions, much like the angels, and this is closely related to the idea of ​​a heavenly hierarchy in which the different types of saints play different roles. 1] A fundamental distinction was described in the ninth century by al-Tirmidhi in his Sīrat al-awliyāʾ (Lives of the Saints), who distinguished between two main types of saints: the walī ḥaḳḳ Allāh on the one hand and the walī Allāh on the other.[1] According to the Author “must the [spiritual] ascension of the Walī ḥaḳḳ Allah end at the end of the created cosmos… he can attain the closeness of God, but not God himself; he is only admitted near God (muḳarrab). It is the walī Allāh that attains God.. Rising above God's throne means consciously traversing the realms of light of the Divine Names.... When the walī Allāh has traversed all the realms of the Divine Names, i.e. His Names as fully as possible, he is then annihilated in the nature of God, his soul, his ego is annihilated and ... when he acts, God acts through him, and so at the same time the state of annihilation signifies the highest level of activity in this world."[1] Although the doctrine of the hierarchy of saints can be found in written sources as early as the 8th century,[1] it was al-Tirmidhi who gave it its first systematic articulation.[1] According to the author, forty great saints, to whom he refers by various names ṣiddīḳīn, abdāl, umanāʾ and nuṣaḥāʾ,[1] were appointed after the death of Muhammad to perpetuate the knowledge of the divine mysteries given to them by the became a prophet.[1] These forty saints, said al-Tirmidhi, would be replaced in each generation after their earthly death; and according to him "the fact that they exist is a guarantee of the continued existence of the world."[1] Among these forty, al-Tirmidhi specified that seven of them were particularly blessed.[1] Despite their exalted nature, however, al-Tirmidhi emphasized that these forty saints ranked below the prophets.[1] Later important works detailing the hierarchy of saints were written by the mystic ʿAmmār al-Bidlīsī (d. 1194-1207), the spiritual teacher of Najmuddin Kubra (d. 1220), and by Ruzbihan Baqli (d. 1209) , who evidently knew of "a highly developed hierarchy of God's friends".[1] The differences in terminology between the various heavenly hierarchies presented by these authors were offset by later scholars through their belief that the earlier mystics had emphasized certain parts and different aspects of a single, coherent hierarchy of saints.[1] Sufism[ edit ] In certain esoteric teachings of Islam, there is said to be a cosmic spiritual hierarchy[39][40][41] whose ranks include walis (saints, friends of God), abdals (changed ones), headed by a ghawth (helper). or qutb (pole, axis). The information varies depending on the source. One source is the 12th-century Persian Ali Hujwiri. In his divine court there are three hundred akhyār (“eminent ones”), forty abdāl (“representatives”), seven abrār (“pious devotees”), four awtād (“pillars”), three nuqabā (“leaders”) and one qutb. All these saints know each other and cannot act without mutual consent. It is the duty of the Awtad to circumnavigate the whole world every night, and if there is a place where their eyes have not fallen, there will be a mistake in that spot the next day, and they must then do the Qutb in turn inform that he can direct his attention to the weak spot and that through his blessing the imperfection can be repaired.[42] Another is from Ibn Arabi who lived in Moorish Spain. It has a more exclusive structure. There are eight nujabā ("noble ones"), twelve nuqabā, seven abdāl, four awtād, two a'immah ("leaders") and the qutb.[43] According to the 20th-century Sufi Inayat Khan, there are seven levels in the hierarchy. In ascending order these are Pir, Buzurg, Wali, Ghaus, Qutb, Nabi and Rasul. He doesn't say how the plains are populated. Pirs and Buzurgs aid in the spiritual advancement of those who approach them. Walis can take responsibility for protecting a community and generally work in secret. Qutbs are similarly responsible for large regions. Nabis are commissioned to bring a Reformation message to nations or denominations and therefore have a public role. Rasuls also have a mission to transform the world at large.[44] Regional worship[ edit ] The level of worship received by a particular saint varied from region to region in Islamic civilization, often based on the saint's own history in that region.[1] While veneration of saints played a crucial role in the daily devotion of Sunni Muslims throughout the Islamic world for more than a thousand years (c. 800–1800), which saints were most prevalent depended on the particular cultural climate and hagiographic traditions of that particular one territory.[1] For example, while Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236) was revered throughout the Sunni world during the Middle Ages, his cult was particularly prominent in the Indian subcontinent, as there he was said to have preached and performed most of his miracles, eventually settling at the end of his life down.[1] North Africa[ edit ] The veneration of saints has "played an essential role in the religious and social life of the Maghreb for more or less a millennium",[1] in other words, since Islam first reached the countries of North Africa in the eighth century.[1] The first written mentions asketischer muslimischer Heiliger in Afrika, "allgemein bewundert und mit Anhängern",[1] erscheinen in Hagiographien des zehnten Jahrhunderts.[1][45] Wie jedoch von Gelehrten festgestellt wurde, "kann das Phänomen wohl älter sein“,[1] denn viele der Geschichten der islamischen Heiligen wurden mündlich überliefert, bevor sie schließlich niedergeschrieben wurden.[1] Einer der am meisten verehrten Heiligen in der frühen nordafrikanischen islamischen Geschichte war Abū Yaʿzā (oder Yaʿazzā , gest. 1177), ein analphabetischer sunnitischer Maliki-Wundertäter, dessen Ruf für Heiligkeit sogar in seinem eigenen Leben bewundert wurde. , der auch für seine persönliche Frömmigkeit und seine Fähigkeit, Wunder zu wirken, berühmt wurde.[1] Es war Abu Madyan (gest. 1 197), der schließlich einer der Awliya Allah des gesamten Maghreb wurde. Als „spiritueller Schüler dieser beiden vorangegangenen Heiligen“[1] war Abū Madyan, ein prominenter sunnitischer Maliki-Gelehrter, die erste Figur des maghrebinischen Sufismus, „der einen Einfluss über seine eigene Region hinaus ausübte.“[1] Abū Madyan reiste in den Osten , wo er prominente Mystiker wie den berühm ten Hanbali-Juristen Abdul-Qadir Gilani (gest. 1166) getroffen haben soll.[1] Nach seiner Rückkehr in den Maghreb hielt Abū Madyan in Béjaïa an und "bildete einen Kreis von Schülern".[1] Abū Madyan starb schließlich in Tlemcen, als er sich auf den Weg zum Almohadenhof von Marrakesch machte; er wurde später von der Bevölkerung als ein erstklassiger Awliya Allah von Tlemcen verehrt.[1][48][49] Einer der bemerkenswertesten Schüler von Abū Madyan war ʿAbd al-Salām Ibn Mas̲h̲īs̲h̲ (gest. 1127),[1] ein „Heiliger … [der] einen posthumen Ruhm hatte, weil er von ihm als Meister und ‚Pol‘ anerkannt wurde“. Abu 'l-Ḥasan al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī (gest. 1258).[1] Es war diese letzte Figur, die zum herausragenden Heiligen in der maghrebinischen Frömmigkeit wurde, da er der Gründer eines der berühmtesten sunnitischen Sufi-Orden Nordafrikas war: der Shadhiliyya tariqa.[1] Der Shadhili-Orden hielt sich in seiner Rechtsprechung an die Maliki-Maddhab und brachte in den vergangenen Jahren zahlreiche weitverehrte sunnitische Heilige hervor, darunter Fāsī Aḥmad al-Zarrūq (gest. 1494),[1] der in Ägypten erzogen, aber in Libyen und Marokko gelehrt wurde. und Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad al-Jazūlī (gest. 1465), „der nach einer langen Reise in den Osten nach Marokko zurückkehrte und dann ein Leben als Einsiedler begann“[1] und der für die ihm nachgesagten Wunder weithin berühmt wurde mit Gottes Erlaubnis geschaffen haben.[1] Schließlich wurde letzterer in Marrakesch begraben, wo er für die Sunniten der Gegend einer der sieben berühmtesten Awliya Allah der Stadt wurde.[1] Einige der beliebtesten und einflussreichsten maghrebinischen Heiligen und Mystiker der folgenden Jahrhunderte waren Muḥammad b. Nāṣir (gest. 1674), Aḥmad al-Tij̲ānī (gest. 1815), Abū Ḥāmid al-ʿArabī al-Darqāwī (gest. 1823) und Aḥmad b. ʿAlāwī (gest. 1934),[50] wobei die letzten drei eigene Sufi-Orden hervorgebracht haben.[1] Berühmte Anhänger des Shadhili-Ordens unter modernen islamischen Gelehrten sind Abdallah Bin Bayyah (geb. 1935), Muhammad Alawi al-Maliki (gest. 2004), Hamza Yusuf (geb. 1958) und Muhammad al-Yaqoubi (geb. 1963). [1] The veneration of saints in Maghrebi Sunni Islam has been studied by scholars with regard to the various "types" of saints venerated by Sunnis in those areas.[1] These include: (1) the "pure, ascetic hermit," [1] who is honored for having refused all ostentation, and is commemorated not on account of his written works but by virtue of the reputation he is believed to have had for personal sanctity, miracles, and "inward wisdom or gnosis"; [1] who is honored for having refused all ostentation, and is commemorated not on account of his written works but by virtue of the reputation he is believed to have had for personal sanctity, miracles, and "inward wisdom or gnosis"; (2) "the ecstatic and eccentric saint" ( mad̲j̲d̲h̲ūb ), [1] who is believed to have maintained orthodoxy in his fulfillment of the pillars of the faith, but who is famous for having taught in an unusually direct style or for having divulged the highest truths before the majority in a manner akin to Hallaj (d. 922). [1] Famous and widely venerated saints of this "type" include Ibn al-Marʾa (d. 1214), ʿAlī al-Ṣanhāj̲ī (ca. 16th-century), ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Mad̲j̲d̲h̲ūb (literally "ʿAbd al-Raḥmān the Ecstatic", d. 1569); [51] ), who is believed to have maintained orthodoxy in his fulfillment of the pillars of the faith, but who is famous for having taught in an unusually direct style or for having divulged the highest truths before the majority in a manner akin to Hallaj (d. 922). Famous and widely venerated saints of this "type" include Ibn al-Marʾa (d. 1214), ʿAlī al-Ṣanhāj̲ī (ca. 16th-century), ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Mad̲j̲d̲h̲ūb (literally "ʿAbd al-Raḥmān the Ecstatic", d. 1569); (3) the "warrior saint" (pl. murābiṭūn ) or martyr; [1] ) or martyr; (4) female saints, who may belong to one of the aforementioned three categories or some other. [1] It has been remarked that "Maghrebi sainthood is by no means confined to men, and ... some of the tombs of female saints are very frequently visited." [1] It has been remarked that "Maghrebi sainthood is by no means confined to men, and ... some of the tombs of female saints are very frequently visited." (5) "Jewish saints", that is to say, venerable Jewish personages whose tombs are frequented by Sunni Muslims in the area for the seeking of blessings[1] Regarding the veneration of saints amongst Sunni Muslims in the Maghreb in the present day, scholars have noted the presence of many "thousands of minor, local saints whose tombs remain visible in villages or the quarters of towns."[1] Although many of these saints lack precise historiographies or hagiographies, "their presence and their social efficacity ... [are] immense"[1] in shaping the spiritual life of Muslims in the region. For the vast majority of Muslims in the Maghreb even today, the saints remain "very much alive at their tomb, to the point that the person's name most often serves to denote the place."[1] While this classical type of Sunni veneration represents the most widespread stance in the area, the modern influence of Salafism and Wahhabism have challenged the traditional practice in some quarters.[1] Turkey, the Balkans, the Caucasus and Azerbaijan [ edit ] Scholars have noted the tremendously "important role"[1] the veneration of saints has historically played in Islamic life all these areas, especially amongst Sunnis who frequent the many thousands of tombs scattered throughout the region for blessings in performing the act of ziyāra.[1] According to scholars, "between the Turks of the Balkans and Anatolia, and those in Central Asia, despite the distance separating them, the concept of the saint and the organisation of pilgrimages displays no fundamental differences."[1] The veneration of saints really spread in the Turkish lands from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries,[1] and played a crucial role in medieval Turkic Sunni piety not only in cosmopolitan cities but also "in rural areas and amongst nomads of the whole Turkish world."[1] One of the reasons proposed by scholars for the popularity of saints in pre-modern Turkey is that Islam was majorly spread by the early Sunni Sufis in the Turkish lands, rather than by purely exoteric teachers.[1] Most of the saints venerated in Turkey belonged to the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence.[1] As scholars have noted, saints venerated in traditional Turkish Sunni Islam may be classified into three principal categories:[1] (1) The g̲h̲āzīs or early Muslims saints who preached the faith in the region and were often martyred for their religion. Some of the most famous and widely venerated saints of this category include the prophet Muhammad's companion Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī (d. 674), who was killed beneath the walls of Constantinople and was honored as a martyr shortly thereafter, [1] and Sayyid Baṭṭāl G̲h̲āzī (d. ninth-century), who fought the Christians in Anatolia during the Umayyad period. [1] or early Muslims saints who preached the faith in the region and were often martyred for their religion. Some of the most famous and widely venerated saints of this category include the prophet Muhammad's companion Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī (d. 674), who was killed beneath the walls of Constantinople and was honored as a martyr shortly thereafter, and Sayyid Baṭṭāl G̲h̲āzī (d. ninth-century), who fought the Christians in Anatolia during the Umayyad period. (2) Sufi saints, who were most often Sunni mystics who belonged to the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence and were attached to one of the orthodox Sufi orders like the Naqshbandi or the Mevlevi. [1] (3) The "greats figures of Islam", both pre-Islamic and those who came after Muhammad, as well as certain sainted rulers.[1] Reverence of Awliya Allah [ edit ] Reverence for Awliya Allah have been an important part of both Sunni and Shia Islamic tradition that particularly important classical saints have served as the heavenly advocates for specific Muslim empires, nations, cities, towns, and villages.[52] With regard to the sheer omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote: "There is scarcely a region in the empire of Islam which has not a Sufi for its Patron Saint."[53] As the veneration accorded saints often develops purely organically in Islamic climates, the Awliya Allah are often recognized through popular acclaim rather than through official declaration.[52] Traditionally, it has been understood that the Wali'Allah of a particular place prays for that place's well-being and for the health and happiness of all who live therein.[52] Here is a partial list of Muslim Awliya Allah: Awliya Allah of the city; the shrine is the most popular site of Muslim pilgrimage in the The shrine of Niẓām al-Dīn Awliyā (d. 1325) in Delhi , India, where he is honored as anof the city; the shrine is the most popular site of Muslim pilgrimage in the Indian subcontinent Awliya Allah of the country; the shrine was commissioned by The shrine of Aḥmad Yesewī (d. 1166) in Turkistan, Kazakhstan , where he is honored as anof the country; the shrine was commissioned by Timur in 1389 See also[edit] References[edit] Notes [edit] Quotations[edit] Further reading[edit] Primary [ edit ] Ibn Abi ’l-Dunyā, K. al-Awliyāʾ , in Mad̲j̲mūʿat rasāʾil, Cairo 1354/1935 , in Mad̲j̲mūʿat rasāʾil, Cairo 1354/1935 Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣbahānī, Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ , Cairo 1351 ff./1932 ff. , Cairo 1351 ff./1932 ff. Abū Saʿīd al-K̲h̲arrāz, K. al-Kas̲h̲f wa ’l-bayān , ed. Ḳ. al-Sāmarrāʾī, Bag̲h̲dād 1967 , ed. Ḳ. al-Sāmarrāʾī, Bag̲h̲dād 1967 al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmid̲h̲ī, K. K̲h̲atm al-awliyāʾ , ed. O. Yaḥyā, Beirut 1965 , ed. O. Yaḥyā, Beirut 1965 idem, K. Sīrat al-awliyāʾ , ed. B. Radtke, in Drei Schrijten, i, 1-134, Beirut 1992 , ed. B. Radtke, in Drei Schrijten, i, 1-134, Beirut 1992 idem, al-Farḳ bayn al-āyāt wa ’l-karāmāt , ms. Ankara, Ismail Saib i, 1571, fols. 152b-177b , ms. Ankara, Ismail Saib i, 1571, fols. 152b-177b idem, Badʾ s̲h̲aʾn Abī ʿAbd Allāh , ed. Yaḥyā, in Tirmid̲h̲ī, K̲h̲atm , 14-32, facs. and German tr. in Radtke, Tirmid̲iana minora , 244-77, Eng. tr. in Radtke and O’Kane, Concept of sainthood , 15-36. Handbooks. , ed. Yaḥyā, in Tirmid̲h̲ī, , 14-32, facs. and German tr. in Radtke, , 244-77, Eng. tr. in Radtke and O’Kane, , 15-36. Handbooks. Bādisī, "al-Maḳṣad", tr. G. Colin, in Archives marocaines , xxvi-xxvii (1926) , xxvi-xxvii (1926) G̲h̲ubrīnī, ʿUnwān al-dirāya , Algiers 1970 , Algiers 1970 Hud̲j̲wīrī, Kas̲h̲f al-maḥd̲j̲ūb , ed. V. Zhukovsky, repr. Tehran 1336/1958, 265 ff., tr. Nicholson, The Kashf al-mahjūb. The oldest Persian treatise on Sufism , Leiden-London 1911, 210-41 , ed. V. Zhukovsky, repr. Tehran 1336/1958, 265 ff., tr. Nicholson, , Leiden-London 1911, 210-41 Kalābād̲h̲ī, al-Taʿarruf li-mad̲h̲hab ahl al-taṣawwuf ed. Arberry, Cairo 1934, tr. idem, The doctrine of the Sufis , 2, Cambridge 1977, ch. 26 ed. Arberry, Cairo 1934, tr. idem, , 2, Cambridge 1977, ch. 26 Sarrād̲j̲, K. al-Lumaʿ fi ’l-taṣawwuf , ed. Nicholson, Leiden-London 1914, 315-32, Ger. tr. R. Gramlich, Schlaglichter über das Sufitum , Stuttgart 1990, 449-68 , ed. Nicholson, Leiden-London 1914, 315-32, Ger. tr. R. Gramlich, , Stuttgart 1990, 449-68 Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī, Ḳūt al-ḳulūb , Cairo 1932, Ger. tr. Gramlich, Die Nährung der Herzen , Wiesbaden 1992–95, index, s.v. Gottesfreund , Cairo 1932, Ger. tr. Gramlich, , Wiesbaden 1992–95, index, s.v. Gottesfreund Ḳus̲h̲ayrī, Risāla , many eds., Ger. tr. Gramlich, Das Sendschreiben al-Qušayrīs , Wiesbaden 1989, index, s.v. Gottesfreund , many eds., Ger. tr. Gramlich, , Wiesbaden 1989, index, s.v. Gottesfreund ʿAmmār al-Bidlīsī, Zwei mystische Schriften , ed. E. Badeen, forthcoming Beirut , ed. E. Badeen, forthcoming Beirut Ibn al-ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-makkiyya , Cairo 1329–1911. , Cairo 1329–1911. idem, Rūḥ al-ḳuds , Damascus 1964, Eng. tr. R.W. Austin, The Sufis of Andalusia , London 1971, Fr. tr. G. Leconte, Les Soufies d'Andalousie , Paris 1995 , Damascus 1964, Eng. tr. R.W. Austin, , London 1971, Fr. tr. G. Leconte, , Paris 1995 F. Meier, Die Vita des Scheich Abū Isḥāq al-Kāzarūnī , Leipzig 1948 , Leipzig 1948 Muḥammad b. Munawwar, Asrār al-tawḥīd fī maḳāmāt al-S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abī Saʿīd , ed. Muḥammad S̲h̲afīʿī-i Kadkanī, Tehran 1366-7, Eng. tr. J. O’Kane, The secrets of God's mystical oneness , New York 1992 , ed. Muḥammad S̲h̲afīʿī-i Kadkanī, Tehran 1366-7, Eng. tr. J. O’Kane, , New York 1992 ʿAzīz al-Dīn Nasafī, K. al-Insān al-kāmil , ed. M. Mole, Tehran-Paris 1962, 313-25 , ed. M. Mole, Tehran-Paris 1962, 313-25 Ibn Taymiyya, al-Furḳān bayna awliyāʾ al-Raḥmān wa-awliyāʾ al-S̲h̲ayṭān , Cairo 1366/1947 , Cairo 1366/1947 idem, Ḥaḳīḳat mad̲h̲hab al-ittiḥādiyyīn, in Mad̲j̲mūʿat al-Rasāʾil wa ’l-masāʾil , iv, Cairo n.d., 1 ff. , iv, Cairo n.d., 1 ff. Ibn ʿAṭāʾ Allāh, Laṭāʾif al-minan, Fr. tr. E. Geoffroy, La sagesse des maîtres soufis, Paris 1998 Secondary [ edit ]

Waliullah, also spelled Valiullah, Valiollah (Arabic: ولي الله‎‎‎), is used as a male Muslim name and often as an epithet, meaning ‘friend of God’. Most prominently, this is an epithet of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shia Imam and fourth Rashidun Caliph. It can also refer to:

English to Urdu Urdu to English Roman Urdu to English

Urdu Word ولی اللہ Meaning in English The Urdu Word ولی اللہ Meaning in English is Saint. The other similar words are wali, buzurg, peer and wali allah. The synonyms of Saint are Angel, Martyr, Holy Being, Beloved, Good Man, Glorified Soul, and Pietist. Take a look at this page to learn more about kacha meanings in English.

ولی اللہ Wali Allah Holy [seynt]

Saint Definitions of Saint n. A sanctified person; a holy or godly person; an outstanding for piety and virtue; every true Christian as redeemed and consecrated to God. n. One of the blessed in heaven. n. One canonized by the Church. intransitive v. Act or live as a saint. transitive v. make a saint out of it; inscribe oneself among the saints by an official act, as by the Pope; to canonize; to give (someone) the title or reputation of saint. Form noun How do you spell Saint [seynt]

Wali Allah ولی اللہ Meaning in English – Find the correct meaning of Wali Allah in English, it is important to understand the word correctly when we translate it from Urdu to English. There are always multiple meanings for each word in English, the correct meaning of Wali Allah in English is Saint, and in Urdu we write it ولی اللہ. The other meanings are wali, buzurg, peer and wali allah. Formally, the word Saint is a noun. It is written as [seynt]. There are also several words similar to Wali Allah in our dictionary namely Angel, Martyr, Holy Being, Loved One, Good Person, Glorified Soul and Pietist. According to Urdu English translation of Wali Allah, if you have trouble with pronunciation, you can hear the sound of it in online dictionary.

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English to Urdu Urdu to English Roman Urdu to English

Urdu Word ولی اللہ Meaning in English The Urdu Word ولی اللہ Meaning in English is Saint. The other similar words are wali, buzurg, peer and wali allah. The synonyms of Saint are Angel, Martyr, Holy Being, Beloved, Good Man, Glorified Soul, and Pietist. Take a look at this page to learn more about kacha meanings in English.

ولی اللہ Wali Allah Holy [seynt]

Saint Definitions of Saint n. A sanctified person; a holy or godly person; an outstanding for piety and virtue; every true Christian as redeemed and consecrated to God. n. One of the blessed in heaven. n. One canonized by the Church. intransitive v. Act or live as a saint. transitive v. make a saint out of it; inscribe oneself among the saints by an official act, as by the Pope; to canonize; to give (someone) the title or reputation of saint. Form noun How do you spell Saint [seynt]

Wali Allah ولی اللہ Meaning in English – Find the correct meaning of Wali Allah in English, it is important to understand the word correctly when we translate it from Urdu to English. There are always multiple meanings for each word in English, the correct meaning of Wali Allah in English is Saint, and in Urdu we write it ولی اللہ. The other meanings are wali, buzurg, peer and wali allah. Formally, the word Saint is a noun. It is written as [seynt]. There are also several words similar to Wali Allah in our dictionary namely Angel, Martyr, Holy Being, Loved One, Good Person, Glorified Soul and Pietist. According to Urdu English translation of Wali Allah, if you have trouble with pronunciation, you can hear the sound of it in online dictionary.

Ihtisab or Ihtisap was a type of market tax in the Ottoman Empire;[1] the Muhtasib or Ihtisap Ağasi – the Ihtisab collector – played a broader role in regulating and taxing the markets under the authority of the Kadı.[2]

The Ihtisab seems to have been mainly a “daily opening tax” that shopkeepers paid for every day their shop was open (they paid nothing when their shop was closed).[3] It was viewed as a source of considerable revenue; The people would “buy” the position of Ihtisap Ağasi from the bey to collect the market tax. This was a form of tax rent, paralleling Iltizam and the earlier establishment of feudal monopolies to generate revenue from other economic activities such as salt production. Therefore, the only people who became muhtasibs became those who could afford to buy into the sinecure.[4]

In the later Empire, Damga Resmi (a fee for stamp and stamp duty) was considered part of Ihtisab. In the early 19th century, before the Tanzimat reforms, the difficulty of enforcing Ihtisab prompted the Ottoman government to set up a series of monopolies called Ved-i Vahit to facilitate collection[5].

Ihtisab was eventually replaced by temettu vergisi, a tax on merchants’ profits introduced as part of Tanzimat-era tax reforms in 1839, based on a large-scale census across the empire in the 1830s. The new taxes were first introduced in Bursa and Gallipoli before being introduced to the rest of the Empire; temettu vergisi was enforced by muhassils [6] who were employed government officials rather than feudal lords, although the title ihtisap ağasi was retained; Her role in regulating trade evolved into that of a city official.

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