Top 18 Explain How The Rate Of Soil Formation Can Be Accelerated. 130 Most Correct Answers

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The rate of soil formation can be accelerated by an increase in the weathering of rocks that contribute to the mineral makeup of soil. Topsoil can be increased through the increase of available organic material. Erosion can also lead to an increase in available parent material for soil formation.The amount, intensity, timing, and kind of precipitation influence soil formation. Seasonal and daily changes in temperature affect moisture effectiveness, biological activity, rates of chemical reactions, and kinds of vegetation.Temperature and precipitation influence how fast parent materials weather and, thus, soil properties such as mineral composition and organic matter content. Temperature directly influences the speed of chemical reactions. The warmer the temperature, the faster reactions occur.

The factors that affect soil formation are:

Parent Material.
Time.
Climate.
Relief.
Organisms.

Contents

What 2 things affect the acceleration of soil formation?

The factors that affect soil formation are:

Parent Material.
Time.
Climate.
Relief.
Organisms.

What does the rate of soil formation depend on?

The amount, intensity, timing, and kind of precipitation influence soil formation. Seasonal and daily changes in temperature affect moisture effectiveness, biological activity, rates of chemical reactions, and kinds of vegetation.

Which increases the rate of soil?

Temperature and precipitation influence how fast parent materials weather and, thus, soil properties such as mineral composition and organic matter content. Temperature directly influences the speed of chemical reactions. The warmer the temperature, the faster reactions occur.

What is the rate of soil formation?

The soil production rate due to weathering is approximately 1/10 mm per year. New soils can also deepen from dust deposition. Gradually soil is able to support higher forms of plants and animals, starting with pioneer species, and proceeding along ecological succession to more complex plant and animal communities.

What two things affect the acceleration of soil formation quizlet?

What factors affect soil formation?

The five factors are: 1) parent material, 2) relief or topography, 3) organisms (including humans), 4) climate, and 5) time. If a single parent material is exposed to different climates then a different soil individual will form.

Why do soils form rapidly in warm moist climates?

Increased temperature increases the rate of chemical reactions, which also increases soil formation. In warmer regions, plants and bacteria grow faster, which helps to weather material and produce soils.

What are the factors responsible for soil formation class 10?

Relief features, parent material, atmosphere, vegetation and other types of life, as well as time away from human activities, are the key factors responsible for soil formation.

What are the 4 processes of soil formation?

Four basic processes occur in soils— additions, losses, transformations (changes), and translocation (movement). A PowerPoint presentation provides some examples.

What is soil formation process?

Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent material) through the processes of weathering and natural erosion. Water, wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms and pressure differences all help break down parent material.

Which increases the rate of speciation?

Geographic isolation increases the rate of speciation.

How does time affect soil formation?

Chemical and physical weathering of rock particles occurs over time and is also increased by the burrowing of animals and through penetration by plant roots. Time and topography are intertwined – the topography of a piece of land depends upon the age of the landform.

What is class 8 soil formation?

Soil formation is slow but a continuous process which consists of gradual breakdown of rocks through the process of weathering. Complete answer: Soil is one of the thinnest layers of material covering earth’s surface and it is formed due to weathering of rocks.

How does temperature affect soil formation?

Climate: Temperature and moisture influence the speed of chemical reactions, which in turn help control how fast rocks weather and dead organisms decompose. Soils develop faster in warm, moist climates and slowest in cold or arid ones.

What are the factors affecting soil formation and development and how does each factor affect the other?

Soils are formed through the interaction of five major factors: time, climate, parent material, topography and relief, and organisms. The relative influence of each factor varies from place to place, but the combination of all five factors normally determines the kind of soil developing in any given place.

What are the factors affecting soil formation class 8?

Climate, , flora and fauna, altitude, and are the five major factors that contribute to soil formation.

How climate affect soil formation?

Climate indirectly affects soil formation through its influence on organisms as well. High temperatures and rainfall increase the degree of weathering and therefore the extent of soil development. Increase of rainfall increase organic matter content, decrease pH, increase leaching of basic ions, movement of clay etc.

How time affects soil formation?

Soil Formation | #aumsum #kids #science #education #children

What factors affect the formation of soil? | Socratic

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Most searched keywords: Whether you are looking for What factors affect the formation of soil? | Socratic Updating The factors that affect soil formation are: 1. Parent Material 2. Time 3. Climate 4. Relief 5. Organisms 1. Parent Material : This refers to the material of the soil. 2. Time : Since soils take many years to form. 3. Climate : The type of soil formed depends on the type of climate of that place. 4. Relief : Depends on the landscape and slope it has. 5. Organisms : Refers to the organisms that are present in the soil ~Hope this helps! 🙂
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Most searched keywords: Whether you are looking for Five factors of soil formation Updating Describes the factors that form more than 1,108 soil series in MInnesota. Covers the impact of parent material, climate, biota, topography and time.
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The five factors

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Soil and water

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Overview[edit]

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Most searched keywords: Whether you are looking for Explain How The Rate Of Soil Formation Can Be Accelerated? – All Famous Faqs The rate of soil formation can be accelerated by an increase in the weathering of rocks that contribute to the mineral makeup of soil. The rate of soil formation can be accelerated by an increase in the weathering of rocks that contribute to the mineral makeup of soil. Topsoil can be increased through the increase of available organic material. Erosion can also lead to an increase in available parent material for soil formation.
Table of Contents:

What are the 5 factors of soil formation

What does the rate of soil formation depend on

What are the 6 factors that affect soil formation

How time affects soil formation

What 2 things affect the acceleration of soil formation

In which of these climates is soil formation the fastest

What 2 things affect the acceleration of soil formation quizlet

How is soil formed short answer

How soil formation takes place

What are the 4 processes of soil formation

What conditions produce the fastest weathering

What is generally the most important factor influencing soil formation

How does the major factor of soil formation play an important role

How topography affect soil formation

What are the factors affecting soil formation explain any three

How does climate affect the rate of soil formation

What are the five factors that affect soil formation quizlet

How long does it take for soil to form

How does slope affect soil formation quizlet

What are the main factors affecting the formation of soil Class 10

What are the main factors affecting the formation of soil describe each factor briefly Class 10

Why do soil form faster in hot and humid conditions

In which setup did the soil move faster

How do biota in soil accelerate the process of soil formation

How is soil formed class 4 Answer

How is soil formed Class 9 long answer

Why soil formation process is faster in equatorial climate

How many process of soil formation do we have

What are the three stages of soil formation

How are soil formed Class 10

How is soil formed short answer 7

In which type of environment is the rate of weathering the fastest Why is it important

How fast does weathering depend on

How climate affects the rate of weathering

How might the direction that a slope is facing influence soil formation

What is the rate of soil formation

How does the formation of soil relate to the processes of weathering and erosion

How do topography and climate of a place influence the formation of soil explain with the help of examples

Which are the two main factors responsible for soil formation

Does climate change impact the soil and soil structures

What two things affect the acceleration of soil formation

What two things affect the acceleration of soil formation quizlet

What factors influence soil formation quizlet

What type of climates form soils the fastest

How does slope affect the soil in an area

Which factor is most influential to soil formation quizlet

How does time affect soil formation

How do you distinguish between the process of soil formation and soil-forming factors Class 11

Which factors help in the formation of soil Class 11

At what rate is soil being lost compared to the rate it is being formed

How is soil formed short answer

What is the formation of soil

Explain How The Rate Of Soil Formation Can Be Accelerated? – All Famous Faqs

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Table of Contents:

In which of these climates is soil formation the fastest Hot and dry hot and moist cold and dry cold and moist

What factors affect soil formation quizlet

What are the factors affecting soil formation and development and how does each factor affect the other

What 2 things affect the acceleration of soil formation quizlet

How do biota in soil accelerate the process of soil formation

What factor usually has the greatest effect on soil formation

In which of these climates is soil formation the fastest

How does the formation of soil relate to the processes of weathering and erosion

How does climate affect soil formation quizlet

How is soil formed short answer

What are the factors that will cause changes to soil formation

What accelerates soil weathering

How long does it take for soil to form

How is soil formed Class 9 long answer

How are soil formed Class 10

How weathering takes place in soil formation

What occurs during the second stage of soil formation

What are the factors affecting soil formation explain any three

How does wind affect soil formation

How does the slope of the land affect soil formation

What are the four processes of soil formation

How is soil formed class 11th

What is the process of soil formation called

What are the five factors that affect soil formation quizlet

What does the rate of soil formation depend on

How time affects soil formation

What is the rate of soil formation

What are the five processes of soil formation

What 2 things affect the acceleration of soil formation

How does farming accelerate soil erosion

Soil Formation and Classification

Soil Formation and Classification

The National Cooperative Soil Survey identifies and maps over 20,000 different kinds of soil in the United States. Most soils are given a name, which generally comes from the locale where the soil was first mapped. Named soils are referred to as soil series.

Soil survey reports include the soil survey maps and the names and descriptions of the soils in a report area. These soil survey reports are published by the National Cooperative Soil Survey and are available to everyone.

Soils are named and classified on the basis of physical and chemical properties in their horizons (layers). “Soil Taxonomy” uses color, texture, structure, and other properties of the surface two meters deep to key the soil into a classification system to help people use soil information. This system also provides a common language for scientists.

Soils and their horizons differ from one another, depending on how and when they formed. Soil scientists use five soil factors to explain how soils form and to help them predict where different soils may occur. The scientists also allow for additions and removal of soil material and for activities and changes within the soil that continue each day.

Soil Forming Factors

Parent material. Few soils weather directly from the underlying rocks. These “residual” soils have the same general chemistry as the original rocks. More commonly, soils form in materials that have moved in from elsewhere. Materials may have moved many miles or only a few feet. Windblown “loess” is common in the Midwest. It buries “glacial till” in many areas. Glacial till is material ground up and moved by a glacier. The material in which soils form is called “parent material.” In the lower part of the soils, these materials may be relatively unchanged from when they were deposited by moving water, ice, or wind.

Sediments along rivers have different textures, depending on whether the stream moves quickly or slowly. Fast-moving water leaves gravel, rocks, and sand. Slow-moving water and lakes leave fine textured material (clay and silt) when sediments in the water settle out.

Climate. Soils vary, depending on the climate. Temperature and moisture amounts cause different patterns of weathering and leaching. Wind redistributes sand and other particles especially in arid regions. The amount, intensity, timing, and kind of precipitation influence soil formation. Seasonal and daily changes in temperature affect moisture effectiveness, biological activity, rates of chemical reactions, and kinds of vegetation.

Topography. Slope and aspect affect the moisture and temperature of soil. Steep slopes facing the sun are warmer, just like the south-facing side of a house. Steep soils may be eroded and lose their topsoil as they form. Thus, they may be thinner than the more nearly level soils that receive deposits from areas upslope. Deeper, darker colored soils may be expected on the bottom land.

Biological factors. Plants, animals, micro-organisms, and humans affect soil formation. Animals and micro-organisms mix soils and form burrows and pores. Plant roots open channels in the soils. Different types of roots have different effects on soils. Grass roots are “fibrous” near the soil surface and easily decompose, adding organic matter. Taproots open pathways through dense layers. Micro-organisms affect chemical exchanges between roots and soil. Humans can mix the soil so extensively that the soil material is again considered parent material.

The native vegetation depends on climate, topography, and biological factors plus many soil factors such as soil density, depth, chemistry, temperature, and moisture. Leaves from plants fall to the surface and decompose on the soil. Organisms decompose these leaves and mix them with the upper part of the soil. Trees and shrubs have large roots that may grow to considerable depths.

Time. Time for all these factors to interact with the soil is also a factor. Over time, soils exhibit features that reflect the other forming factors. Soil formation processes are continuous. Recently deposited material, such as the deposition from a flood, exhibits no features from soil development activities. The previous soil surface and underlying horizons become buried. The time clock resets for these soils. Terraces above the active floodplain, while genetically similar to the floodplain, are older land surfaces and exhibit more development features.

These soil forming factors continue to affect soils even on “stable” landscapes. Materials are deposited on their surface, and materials are blown or washed away from the surface. Additions, removals, and alterations are slow or rapid, depending on climate, landscape position, and biological activity.

When mapping soils, a soil scientist looks for areas with similar soil-forming factors to find similar soils. The colors, texture, structure, and other properties are described. Soils with the same kind of properties are given taxonomic names. A common soil in the Midwest reflects the temperate, humid climate and native prairie vegetation with a thick, nearly black surface layer. This layer is high in organic matter from decomposing grass. It is called a “mollic epipedon.” It is one of several types of surface horizons that we call “epipedons.” Soils in the desert commonly have an “ochric” epipedon that is light colored and low in organic matter. Subsurface horizons also are used in soil classification. Many forested areas have a subsurface horizon with an accumulation of clay called an “argillic” horizon.

Soil Orders

Soil taxonomy at the highest hierarchical level identifies 12 soil orders. The names for the orders and taxonomic soil properties relate to Greek, Latin, or other root words that reveal something about the soil. Sixty-four suborders are recognized at the next level of classification. There are about 300 great groups and more than 2,400 subgroups. Soils within a subgroup that have similar physical and chemical properties that affect their responses to management and manipulation are families. The soil series is the lowest category in the soil classification system.

Soil Order Formative Terms Pronunciation Alf isols Alf, meaningless syllable Ped alf er And isols Modified from ando And o Ar id isols Latin, aridies, dry Ar id Ent isols Ent, meaningless Rec ent G el isols Latin gelare, to freeze J el l H ist osols Greek, histos, tissue H ist ology Inc ept isols Latin, incepum, beginning Inc ept ion M ol lisols Latin, mollis, soft M o llify Ox isols French oxide Ox ide Sp od osols Greek spodos, wood ash Od d Ult isols Latin ultimus, last Ult imate V ert isols Latin verto, turn Inv ert

Maps

The distribution of these soil orders in the United States corresponds with the general patterns of the soil forming factors across the country. A map of soil orders is useful in understanding broad areas of soils. Detailed soil maps found in soil survey reports, however, should be used for local decision making. Soil maps are like road maps, for very general overview, a small scale map in an atlas is helpful, but for finding a location of a house in a city, a large scale detailed map should be used.

More detailed information on soil orders is available in “Soil Taxonomy” pp. 837-850, Chapter 22.

Formative Elements in Names of Soil Suborders

Formative Element Derivation Sounds Like Connotation Alb L, albus, white Alb ino Presence of albic horizon Anthr Modified from Gr. anthropes, human Anthr opology Modified by humans Aqu L. aqua, water Aqu ifer Aquic conditions Ar L. Arare, to plow Ar able Mixed horizons Arg Modified from argillic horizon; L. argilla, white clay Arg illite Presence of argillic horizon Calc L. calcis, lime Calc ium Presence of a calcic horizons Camb L. cambiare, to exchange Am Presence of a cambic horizon Cry G. kryos, icy cold Cry Cold Dur L. durus, hard Dur able Presence of a duripan Fibr L. fibra, fiber Fibr ous Least decomposed stage Fluv L. fluvius, river Fluv ial Flood plain Fol L. folia, leaf Fol iage Mass of leaves Gyps L. gypsum, gypsum Gyps um Presence of a gypsic horizon Hem Gr hemi, half Hem isphere Intermediate stage of decomposition Hist Gr. histos, tissue Hist ology Presence of organic materials Hum L. humus, earth Hum us Presence of organic matter Orth Gr. orthos, true Orth odox The common ones Per L. Per, throughout in time Per ennial Perudic moisture regime Psamm Gr. psammos, sand Sam Sandy texture Rend Modified from Rendzina End High carbonate content Sal L. base of sal, salt Sal ine Presence of a salic horizon Sapr Gr. sapros, rotten Sap Most decomposed stage Torr L. torridus, hot and dry Or Torric moisture regime Turb L. Turbidis, disturbed Turb ulent Presence of cryoturbation Ud L. udus, Humid You Udic moisture regime Vitr L. vitrum, glass It Presence of glass Ust L. ustus, burnt Comb ust ion Ustic moisture regime Xer Gr. xeros, dry Zero Xeric moisture regime

Formative Elements in Names of Soil Great Groups

Five factors of soil formation

Figure 1: Parent materials of Minnesota soils.

Minnesota is a land of geologically young soils with many different parent materials (Figure 1). The common factor among Minnesota soils is that they were formed by the last glacier in the northern United States, 11,000 to 14,000 years ago.

This may seem like a long time but is considered recent in the context of soil formation and geology. Figure 1 lists five major parent materials: Till, loess, lacustrine, outwash and till over bedrock.

Till

Till is predominant in the south-central, west-central and southwestern parts of the state. As the last glacier was melting, these materials were deposited.

Soils formed in this material generally have silty clay loam to silty clay textures, many different rock sizes and poor internal drainage. The poor drainage has a large influence on nitrogen management and cultural practices.

Loess

Loess is windblown, silt-sized material deposited after the glacier melted. These silt deposits can range in depth from a few inches to many feet. Soils formed in loess generally have silt loam textures and no rocks.

Most soils formed in loess occur in southeastern Minnesota where the loess deposits are on top of limestone or sandstone. Because of the porous state of the underlying materials in southeastern Minnesota, the soils are generally well-drained.

Loess in southwestern Minnesota is deposited over glacial till. Soils formed in this material are generally poorly drained and behave similarly to soils formed in glacial till. Erosion is a major concern for these soils because of the silt loam texture. Residue management becomes an important factor in maintaining high productivity.

Lacustrine

Lacustrine parent materials result from sediment deposited in lakes formed by glacial meltwater. The lakes existed long enough that the large particles, such as rocks and sand, were deposited immediately after the lake was formed, while the smaller clay-sized particles were deposited later.

An example is the soil formed under Glacial Lake Agassiz in northwestern Minnesota and eastern North Dakota (Red River Valley of the North). Soils formed in lacustrine deposits have clay, clay loam and silty clay loam textures, poor internal drainage and no rocks. Many soils in northwestern Minnesota were formed in lacustrine material.

Outwash

Outwash is material deposited on the edges of fast-running rivers from the melting ice of receding glaciers. This includes rocks, gravel, sand and other materials large enough to drop out of the water flow, as the river current continued transporting smaller particles.

Soils formed in outwash are excessively well-drained and have sand and sandy loam textures. Examples of Minnesota areas with soils formed in outwash include the Anoka Sand Plain, North Central Sands and Bonanza Valley regions in east-central, north-central and central Minnesota, respectively.

Till over bedrock

Till bedrock deposits occur in northeastern Minnesota. Materials from the glacier were deposited over bedrock, similar to south-central Minnesota but with material from different glacial ice.

There are also significant areas of soils formed directly from bedrock. These soils tend to be shallow and aren’t extensively used for crop production.

Soil formation

Process of soil formation

For reproduction by an organism that has not achieved physical maturity, see Paedogenesis

Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects of place, environment, and history. Biogeochemical processes act to both create and destroy order (anisotropy) within soils. These alterations lead to the development of layers, termed soil horizons, distinguished by differences in color, structure, texture, and chemistry. These features occur in patterns of soil type distribution, forming in response to differences in soil forming factors.[1]
Pedogenesis is studied as a branch of pedology, the study of soil in its natural environment. Other branches of pedology are the study of soil morphology, and soil classification. The study of pedogenesis is important to understanding soil distribution patterns in current (soil geography) and past (paleopedology) geologic periods.

Overview [ edit ]
Soil develops through a series of changes.[2] The starting point is weathering of freshly accumulated parent material. A variety of soil microbes (bacteria, archaea, fungi) feed on simple compounds (nutrients) released by weathering, and produce organic acids and specialized proteins which contribute in turn to mineral weathering. They also leave behind organic residues which contribute to humus formation.[3] Plant roots with their symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi are also able to extract nutrients from rocks.[4]
New soils increase in depth by a combination of weathering, and further deposition. The soil production rate due to weathering is approximately 1/10 mm per year.[5] New soils can also deepen from dust deposition. Gradually soil is able to support higher forms of plants and animals, starting with pioneer species, and proceeding along ecological succession to more complex plant and animal communities.[6] Topsoils deepen with the accumulation of humus originating from dead remains of higher plants and soil microbes.[7] They also deepen through mixing of organic matter with weathered minerals.[8] As soils mature, they develop soil horizons as organic matter accumulates and mineral weathering and leaching take place.

Factors of soil formation [ edit ]
Soil formation is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil. They are: parent material, climate, topography (relief), organisms, and time.[9] When reordered to climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and time, they form the acronym CLORPT.[10]
Parent material [ edit ]
The mineral material from which a soil forms is called parent material. Rock, whether its origin is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, is the source of all soil mineral materials and the origin of all plant nutrients with the exceptions of nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. As the parent material is chemically and physically weathered, transported, deposited and precipitated, it is transformed into a soil.[11]
Typical soil parent mineral materials are:

Quartz: SiO 2

Calcite: CaCO 3

Feldspar: KAlSi 3 O 8

O Mica (biotite): K(Mg,Fe)

3 (AlSi

3 O

10 )(F,OH)

2

Soil, on an agricultural field in Germany, which has formed on loess parent material.

Parent materials are classified according to how they came to be deposited. Residual materials are mineral materials that have weathered in place from primary bedrock. Transported materials are those that have been deposited by water, wind, ice or gravity. Cumulose material is organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place.[13]
Residual soils are soils that develop from their underlying parent rocks and have the same general chemistry as those rocks.[14] The soils found on mesas, plateaux, and plains are residual soils. In the United States as little as three percent of the soils are residual.

Most soils derive from transported materials that have been moved many miles by wind, water, ice and gravity.

Cumulose parent material is not moved but originates from deposited organic material. This includes peat and muck soils and results from preservation of plant residues by the low oxygen content of a high water table. While peat may form sterile soils, muck soils may be very fertile.[21]
Weathering [ edit ]
The weathering of parent material takes the form of physical weathering (disintegration), chemical weathering (decomposition) and chemical transformation. Weathering is usually confined to the top few meters of geologic material, because physical, chemical, and biological stresses and fluctuations generally decrease with depth.[22] Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the Earth are exposed to lower pressure near the surface and swell and become mechanically unstable. Chemical decomposition is a function of mineral solubility, the rate of which doubles with each 10 °C rise in temperature, but is strongly dependent on water to effect chemical changes. Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will remain unaltered for millennia in deserts.[23] Structural changes are the result of hydration, oxidation, and reduction. Chemical weathering mainly results from the excretion of organic acids and chelating compounds by bacteria[24] and fungi,[25] thought to increase under present-day greenhouse effect.[26]
Physical disintegration is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil. Temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of the rock, splitting it along lines of weakness. [27] Water may then enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward the center of the rock, while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of “shells”. Cycles of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size, as does the physical rubbing of material as it is moved by wind, water, and gravity. Water can deposit within rocks minerals that expand upon drying, thereby stressing the rock. Finally, organisms reduce parent material in size and create crevices and pores through the mechanical action of plant roots and the digging activity of animals. Grinding of parent material by rock-eating animals also contributes to incipient soil formation. [29]
is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil. Temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of the rock, splitting it along lines of weakness. Water may then enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward the center of the rock, while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of “shells”. Cycles of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size, as does the physical rubbing of material as it is moved by wind, water, and gravity. Water can deposit within rocks minerals that expand upon drying, thereby stressing the rock. Finally, organisms reduce parent material in size and create crevices and pores through the mechanical action of plant roots and the digging activity of animals. Grinding of parent material by rock-eating animals also contributes to incipient soil formation. Chemical decomposition and structural changes result when minerals are made soluble by water or are changed in structure. The first three of the following list are solubility changes and the last three are structural changes.

Of the above, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective, in particular in regions of high rainfall, temperature and physical erosion.[37] Chemical weathering becomes more effective as the surface area of the rock increases, thus is favoured by physical disintegration.[38] This stems in latitudinal and altitudinal climate gradients in regolith formation.[39][40]
Saprolite is a particular example of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite, metamorphic and other types of bedrock into clay minerals. Often called [weathered granite], saprolite is the result of weathering processes that include: hydrolysis, chelation from organic compounds, hydration and physical processes that include freezing and thawing. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock material, its physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate and type of weathering transforms the parent material into a different mineral. The texture, pH and mineral constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material. This process is also called arenization, resulting in the formation of sandy soils (granitic arenas), thanks to the much higher resistance of quartz compared to other mineral components of granite (micas, amphiboles, feldspars).[41]
Climate [ edit ]
The principal climatic variables influencing soil formation are effective precipitation (i.e., precipitation minus evapotranspiration) and temperature, both of which affect the rates of chemical, physical, and biological processes.[42] Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of soil through their effects on the balance between primary production and decomposition: the colder or drier the climate the lesser atmospheric carbon is fixed as organic matter while the lesser organic matter is decomposed.[43]
Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation, and soils show the distinctive characteristics of the climate zones in which they form, with a feedback to climate through transfer of carbon stocked in soil horizons back to the atmosphere.[44] If warm temperatures and abundant water are present in the profile at the same time, the processes of weathering, leaching, and plant growth will be maximized. According to the climatic determination of biomes, humid climates favor the growth of trees. In contrast, grasses are the dominant native vegetation in subhumid and semiarid regions, while shrubs and brush of various kinds dominate in arid areas.[45]
Water is essential for all the major chemical weathering reactions. To be effective in soil formation, water must penetrate the regolith. The seasonal rainfall distribution, evaporative losses, site topography, and soil permeability interact to determine how effectively precipitation can influence soil formation. The greater the depth of water penetration, the greater the depth of weathering of the soil and its development.[46] Surplus water percolating through the soil profile transports soluble and suspended materials from the upper layers (eluviation) to the lower layers (illuviation), including clay particles[47] and dissolved organic matter.[48] It may also carry away soluble materials in the surface drainage waters. Thus, percolating water stimulates weathering reactions and helps differentiate soil horizons. Likewise, a deficiency of water is a major factor in determining the characteristics of soils of dry regions. Soluble salts are not leached from these soils, and in some cases they build up to levels that curtail plant[49] and microbial growth.[50] Soil profiles in arid and semi-arid regions are also apt to accumulate carbonates and certain types of expansive clays (calcrete or caliche horizons).[51][52] In tropical soils, when the soil has been deprived of vegetation (e.g. by deforestation) and thereby is submitted to intense evaporation, the upward capillary movement of water, which has dissolved iron and aluminum salts, is responsible for the formation of a superficial hard pan of laterite or bauxite, respectively, which is improper for cultivation, a known case of irreversible soil degradation (lateritization, bauxitization).[53]
The direct influences of climate include:

A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas as caliche

Formation of acid soils in humid areas

Erosion of soils on steep hillsides

Deposition of eroded materials downstream

Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion in warm and humid regions where soil does not freeze

Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand and smaller particles (dust), especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover, depositing it close[55] or far from the entrainment source.[56] The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil, and aid in the development of different soil profiles. Soil profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates, where organic materials may accumulate, than in wet and warm climates, where organic materials are rapidly consumed.[57] The effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations, which favour tensile stresses in rock minerals, and thus their mechanical disaggregation, a process called thermal fatigue.[58] By the same process freeze-thaw cycles are an effective mechanism which breaks up rocks and other consolidated materials.[59]
Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and biological activity, which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil.[60]
Topography [ edit ]
The topography, or relief, is characterized by the inclination (slope), elevation, and orientation of the terrain (aspect). Topography determines the rate of precipitation or runoff and the rate of formation or erosion of the surface soil profile. The topographical setting may either hasten or retard the work of climatic forces.[61]
Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by erosion and allow less rainfall to enter the soil before running off and hence, little mineral deposition in lower profiles (illuviation). In semiarid regions, the lower effective rainfall on steeper slopes also results in less complete vegetative cover, so there is less plant contribution to soil formation.[62] For all of these reasons, steep slopes prevent the formation of soil from getting very far ahead of soil destruction. Therefore, soils on steep terrain tend to have rather shallow, poorly developed profiles in comparison to soils on nearby, more level sites.[63]
Topography determines exposure to weather, fire, and other forces of man and nature. Mineral accumulations, plant nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water drainage are dependent on topographic relief.[64] Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and soils on the slopes that face the sun’s path will be drier than soils on slopes that do not.[65]
In swales and depressions where runoff water tends to concentrate, the regolith is usually more deeply weathered and soil profile development is more advanced.[66] However, in the lowest landscape positions, water may saturate the regolith to such a degree that drainage and aeration are restricted. Here, the weathering of some minerals and the decomposition of organic matter are retarded, while the loss of iron and manganese is accelerated. In such low-lying topography, special profile features characteristic of wetland soils may develop. Depressions allow the accumulation of water, minerals and organic matter and in the extreme, the resulting soils will be saline marshes or peat bogs.[67]
Recurring patterns of topography result in toposequences or soil catenas. These patterns emerge from topographic differences in erosion, deposition, fertility, soil moisture, plant cover, soil biology, fire history, and exposure to the elements. As a matter of rule, gravity transport water downslope, together with mineral and organic solutes and colloids, increasing particulate and base content at the foot of hills and mountains.[68] However, many other factors like drainage and erosion interact with slope position, blurring its expected influence on crop yield.[69]
Organisms [ edit ]
Each soil has a unique combination of microbial, plant, animal and human influences acting upon it. Microorganisms are particularly influential in the mineral transformations critical to the soil forming process. Additionally, some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and some fungi are efficient at extracting deep soil phosphorus and increasing soil carbon levels in the form of glomalin.[70] Plants hold soil against erosion, and accumulated plant material build soil humus levels. Plant root exudation supports microbial activity. Animals serve to decompose plant materials and mix soil through bioturbation.[71]
Soil is the most speciose ecosystem on Earth, but the vast majority of organisms in soil are microbes, a great many of which have not been described.[72][73] There may be a population limit of around one billion cells per gram of soil, but estimates of the number of species vary widely from 50,000 per gram to over a million per gram of soil.[74][75] The total number of organisms and species can vary widely according to soil type, location, and depth.[73][75]
Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation (see soil biomantle and stonelayer). Soil animals, including soil macrofauna and soil mesofauna, mix soils as they form burrows and pores, allowing moisture and gases to move about, a process called bioturbation.[76] In the same way, plant roots penetrate soil horizons and open channels upon decomposition.[77] Plants with deep taproots can penetrate many metres through the different soil layers to bring up nutrients from deeper in the profile.[78] Plants have fine roots that excrete organic compounds (sugars, organic acids, mucilage), slough off cells (in particular at their tip) and are easily decomposed, adding organic matter to soil, a process called rhizodeposition.[79] Micro-organisms, including fungi and bacteria, effect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients in a soil biological hotspot called rhizosphere.[80] The growth of roots through the soil stimulates microbial populations, stimulating in turn the activity of their predators (notably amoeba), thereby increasing the mineralization rate, and in last turn root growth, a positive feedback called the soil microbial loop.[81] Out of root influence, in the bulk soil, most bacteria are in a quiescent stage, forming microaggregates, i.e. mucilaginous colonies to which clay particles are glued, offering them a protection against desiccation and predation by soil microfauna (bacteriophagous protozoa and nematodes).[82] Microaggregates (20-250 μm) are ingested by soil mesofauna and macrofauna, and bacterial bodies are partly or totally digested in their guts.[83]
Humans impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover through tillage, application of biocides, fire and leaving soils bare. This can lead to erosion, , waterlogging, lateritization or podzolization (according to climate and topography).[84] Their tillage also mixes the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as less weathered material is mixed with the more developed upper layers, resulting in net increased rate of mineral weathering.[85]
Earthworms, ants, termites, moles, gophers, as well as some millipedes and tenebrionid beetles mix the soil as they burrow, significantly affecting soil formation.[86] Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic residues, enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through their bodies.[87] They aerate and stir the soil and create stable soil aggregates, after having disrupted links between soil particles during the intestinal transit of ingested soil,[88] thereby assuring ready infiltration of water.[89] In addition, as ants and termites build mounds, earthworms transport soil materials from one horizon to another.[90] Other important functions are fulfilled by earthworms in the soil ecosystem, in particular their intense mucus production, both within the intestine and as a lining in their galleries,[91] exert a priming effect on soil microflora,[92] giving them the status of ecosystem engineers, which they share with ants and termites.[93]
In general, the mixing of the soil by the activities of animals, sometimes called pedoturbation, tends to undo or counteract the tendency of other soil-forming processes that create distinct horizons.[94] Termites and ants may also retard soil profile development by denuding large areas of soil around their nests, leading to increased loss of soil by erosion.[95] Large animals such as gophers, moles, and prairie dogs bore into the lower soil horizons, bringing materials to the surface.[96] Their tunnels are often open to the surface, encouraging the movement of water and air into the subsurface layers. In localized areas, they enhance mixing of the lower and upper horizons by creating, and later refilling the tunnels. Old animal burrows in the lower horizons often become filled with soil material from the overlying A horizon, creating profile features known as crotovinas.[97]
Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways. It can prevent erosion caused by excessive rain that might result from surface runoff.[98] Plants shade soils, keeping them cooler[99] and slowing evaporation of soil moisture.[100] Conversely, by way of transpiration, plants can cause soils to lose moisture, resulting in complex and highly variable relationships between leaf area index (measuring light interception) and moisture loss: more generally plants prevent soil from desiccation during driest months while they dry it during moister months, thereby acting as a buffer against strong moisture variation.[101] Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals, both directly[102] and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi[25] and rhizosphere bacteria,[103] and improve the soil structure.[104] The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, topography, soil characteristics and biological factors, mediated or not by human activities.[105][106] Soil factors such as density, depth, chemistry, pH, temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can grow in a given location. Dead plants and fallen leaves and stems begin their decomposition on the surface. There, organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers; these added organic compounds become part of the soil formation process.[107]
The influence of man, and by association, fire, are state factors placed within the organisms state factor.[108] Man can import, or extract, nutrients and energy in ways that dramatically change soil formation. Accelerated soil erosion due to overgrazing, and Pre-Columbian terraforming the Amazon basin resulting in Terra Preta are two examples of the effects of man’s management.

Human activities widely influence soil formation.[109] For example, it is believed that Native Americans regularly set fires to maintain several large areas of prairie grasslands in Indiana and Michigan, although climate and mammalian grazers (e.g. bisons) are also advocated to explain the maintenance of the Great Plains of North America.[110] In more recent times, human destruction of natural vegetation and subsequent tillage of the soil for crop production has abruptly modified soil formation.[111] Likewise, irrigating soil in an arid region drastically influences soil-forming factors,[112] as does adding fertilizer and lime to soils of low fertility.[113]
Distinct ecosystems produce distinct soils, sometimes in easily observable ways. For example, three species of land snails in the genus Euchondrus in the Negev desert are noted for eating lichens growing under the surface limestone rocks and slabs (endolithic lichens). The grazing activity of these ecosystem engineers disrupts and eats the limestone, resulting in the weathering of the stones, and the subsequent formation of soil.[114] They have a significant effect on the region: the total population of snails is estimated to process between 0.7 and 1.1 metric ton per hectare per year of limestone in the Negev desert.[114]
The effects of ancient ecosystems are not as easily observed, and this challenges the understanding of soil formation. For example, the chernozems of the North American tallgrass prairie have a humus fraction nearly half of which is charcoal. This outcome was not anticipated because the antecedent prairie fire ecology capable of producing these distinct deep rich black soils is not easily observed.[115] The role of soil engineers in the formation of charcoal-enriched horizons of Terra preta (Amazonian Black Earths) is now acknowledged[116] and was verified experimentally on the pantropical earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus.[117]
Time [ edit ]
Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above.[9] While a mixture of sand, silt and clay constitute the texture of a soil and the aggregation of those components produces peds, the development of a distinct B horizon marks the development of a soil or pedogenesis.[118] With time, soils will evolve features that depend on the interplay of the prior listed soil-forming factors.[9] It takes decades[119] to several thousand years for a soil to develop a profile,[120] although the notion of soil development has been criticized, soil being in a constant state-of-change under the influence of fluctuating soil-forming factors.[121] That time period depends strongly on climate, parent material, relief, and biotic activity. For example, recently deposited material from a flood exhibits no soil development as there has not been enough time for the material to form a structure that further defines soil.[124] The original soil surface is buried, and the formation process must begin anew for this deposit. Over time the soil will develop a profile that depends on the intensities of biota and climate. While a soil can achieve relative stability of its properties for extended periods,[120] the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it vulnerable to erosion.[125] Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation, most soil cycles are long.[120]
Soil-forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence, even on stable landscapes that are long-enduring, some for millions of years.[120] Materials are deposited on top[126] or are blown or washed from the surface.[127] With additions, removals and alterations, soils are always subject to new conditions. Whether these are slow or rapid changes depends on climate, topography and biological activity.[128]
Time as a soil-forming factor may be investigated by studying soil chronosequences, in which soils of different ages but with minor differences in other soil-forming factors can be compared.[121]
Paleosols are soils formed during previous soil forming conditions.

History of research [ edit ]
5 factors of soil formation

Dokuchaev’s equation [ edit ]
Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev, commonly regarded as the father of pedology, determined in 1883[129] that soil formation occurs over time under the influence of climate, vegetation, topography, and parent material. He demonstrated this in 1898 using the soil forming equation:[130]
soil = f( cl , o , p ) t r

(where cl or c = climate, o = biological processes, p = parent material) t r = relative time (young, mature, old)

Hans Jenny’s state equation [ edit ]
American soil scientist Hans Jenny published in 1941[131] a state equation for the factors influencing soil formation:

S = f( cl , o , r , p , t , … )

This is often remembered with the mnemonic Clorpt.

Jenny’s state equation in Factors of Soil Formation differs from the Vasily Dokuchaev equation, treating time (t) as a factor, adding topographic relief (r), and pointedly leaving the ellipsis “open” for more factors (state variables) to be added as our understanding becomes more refined.

There are two principal methods that the state equation may be solved: first in a theoretical or conceptual manner by logical deductions from certain premises, and second empirically by experimentation or field observation. The empirical method is still mostly employed today, and soil formation can be defined by varying a single factor and keeping the other factors constant. This led to the development of empirical models to describe pedogenesis, such as climofunctions, biofunctions, topofunctions, lithofunctions, and chronofunctions. Since Hans Jenny published his formulation in 1941, it has been used by innumerable soil surveyors all over the world as a qualitative list for understanding the factors that may be important for producing the soil pattern within a region.[132]
Soil forming processes [ edit ]
Soils develop from parent material by various weathering processes. Organic matter accumulation, decomposition, and humification are as critically important to soil formation as weathering. The zone of humification and weathering where pedogenic processes are dominant and where biota play an important role is termed the solum.[133]
Soil acidification resulting from soil respiration supports chemical weathering. Plants contribute to chemical weathering through root exudates.[134]
Soils can be enriched by deposition of sediments on floodplains and alluvial fans, and by wind-borne deposits.[135]
Soil mixing (pedoturbation) is often an important factor in soil formation. Pedoturbation includes churning clays, cryoturbation, and bioturbation. Types of bioturbation include faunal pedoturbation (animal burrowing), plant pedoturbation (root growth, tree uprooting), and fungal pedoturbation (mycelial growth). Pedoturbation transforms soils through destratification, mixing, and sorting, as well as creating preferential flow paths for soil gas and infiltrating water. The zone of active bioturbation is termed the soil biomantle.[136]
Soil moisture content and water flow through the soil profile support leaching of solutes, and eluviation. Eluviation is the translocation of colloid material, such as organic matter, clay and other mineral compounds. Transported constituents are deposited due to differences in soil moisture and soil chemistry, especially soil pH and redox potential. The interplay of removal (eluviation) and deposition (illuviation), also called pedotranslocation, results in contrasting soil horizons.[137]
Key soil-forming processes especially important to macro-scale patterns of soil formation are:[138]
Examples [ edit ]
A variety of mechanisms contribute to soil formation, including siltation, erosion, overpressure and lake bed succession. A specific example of the evolution of soils in prehistoric lake beds is in the Makgadikgadi Pans of the Kalahari Desert, where change in an ancient river course led to millennia of salinity buildup and formation of calcretes and silcretes.[139]
Notes [ edit ]
References [ edit ]

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