How To Prepare For A Beit Din? 97 Most Correct Answers

The “Splainer” (as in “You’ve gotta splain something”) is an occasional feature in which RNS gives you everything you need to know about current events so you can hold your own at a cocktail party.

(RNS) Jewish conversion seems to be all over the media lately. In the third season of the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, Litchfield prison inmate Cindy Hayes sets out to convert to Judaism, a journey that begins because packaged kosher meals taste better than regular prison food. After researching Judaism to perfect her con, she decides that she really likes Judaism and asks the prison’s Rent-a-Rabbi for permission to convert. She is rejected several times, but after a heartfelt request, she finally gets the approval.

Cindy isn’t the only Jewish convert to be in the spotlight; Chicago Rabbi Capers Funnye, a cousin of Michelle Obama, was recently appointed head of a black rabbi group, the International Israelite Board of Rabbis.

Meanwhile, Jewish conversion is at the center of a heated debate in Israel as well. Israel’s chief rabbinate has strict guidelines regarding what constitutes legitimate conversion, guidelines that have recently met with reform efforts.

What does it actually mean to convert to Judaism? Here’s what you need to know:

Q: Do you really have to ask a rabbi for conversion more than once?

A: Judaism welcomes converts but does not encourage proselytizing. According to tradition, a rabbi rejects a potential convert three times before he or she can begin the conversion process. The basic idea is that a practicing Jewish lifestyle is a lot to take on. So when potential converts keep asking, it shows their determination to make that commitment.

Even as a historically persecuted group, Jews initially sometimes turn away potential converts in order to consider whether they are willing to confront antisemitism. As the Talmud puts it, the first thing to ask a prospective convert is, “Why did you come to convert? Do you know that at this time Israel will be harassed, oppressed, oppressed, rejected and tribulations will befall them?” Not exactly publicity. That is, although not all Jewish denominations actively proselytize, some no longer turn away from converts first.

Q: How long does it take to become Jewish?

A: Not even the conversion candidates themselves always know. A recent survey of 439 Orthodox converts found that for the majority, the most frustrating part of the conversion process was not having a clear timetable.

Generally, regardless of Jewish denomination, at least one year is required for the prospective convert to experience a full cycle of Jewish holidays. During this time, prosecutors study the Hebrew alphabet, Jewish law, and the basic tenets of the faith until the rabbi supervising them believes they are ready. But when the rabbi agrees, the process is not over. For Conservative or Orthodox conversion, the potential convert must then go to a Beit Din.

Q: A Beit Din? What is that?

A: A beit din is a three-person Jewish meal. The members of a Beit Din are usually rabbis, but can also be lay people trained in Jewish law. They interview candidates for conversion until they have confidence in the person’s genuine desire to convert and level of Jewish knowledge. Reform conversion does not always require a beit din, leaving these and other decisions to the rabbi’s discretion.

Q: OK, but doesn’t it have something to do with being in a pool?

A: Once the convert has received the approval of a beit din, the final step in the conversion process is to immerse the entire body in a mikvah, a Jewish ritual bath, three times and recite two blessings. A mikvah must be either a natural body of water, such as a lake, or a special artificial pool. There are all sorts of specific specifications for building a mikveh, but the main thing is that it must contain a certain amount of water directly from a natural source, such as rain. Many Jewish communities build their own mikvahs for conversion and purification rituals.

Q: What’s the fuss about conversions in Israel right now?

A: First of all, although the Chief Rabbinate of Israel recognizes several types of conversions abroad, it only recognizes Orthodox conversions within Israel. This has long been a matter of debate, and a study published in 2014 showed that 64 percent of Israeli voters would welcome a change in this policy. But a current hot topic is expanding access to Orthodox conversions in Israel. In November 2014, the cabinet voted to have various local Orthodox rabbis oversee conversions along with the four courts run by the chief rabbinate. The decision was intended to make Orthodox conversions more accessible, particularly for immigrants who came to Israel under the Right of Return but could not prove their Jewish ancestry. But on July 5, the Israeli cabinet reversed the decision, putting conversion back at the forefront of Israeli policy.

Copyright: For copyright information, please contact the distributor of this article, Religion News Service LLC.

Rabbinic Court of Judaism

A beth din (Hebrew: בית דין, romanized: Bet Din, literally “House of Judgment”, [bet ˈdin], Ashkenazi: beis din, plural: batei din) is a rabbinic court of Judaism.[1] In ancient times it was the building block of the legal system in the biblical land of Israel. Today, both in Israel and in Diaspora Jewish communities, it is vested with legal authority over a range of religious matters (din Torah, “matters of litigation”, plural dinei Torah), where its judgments have varying degrees of authority (depending on jurisdiction and jurisdiction). subject) in matters pertaining specifically to Jewish religious life.

history [edit]

Rabbinic commentators point out that the first suggestion in the Torah that the ruler relinquish his legal authority and delegate his judgment to lower courts was made by Jethro to Moses (Exodus 18:14-26). This situation was later formalized when God gave the specific command to “put judges and officials in your gates” (Deuteronomy 16:18).

There were three types of judgments (Mishnah, Tractate Sanhedrin 1:1-4 and 1:6):

The Sanhedrin, the great central courtyard on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, is numbered 71

Smaller courts of 23, called sanhedrin ketana (“small sanhedrin”). These courts could make the death sentence. These existed on two levels, one more prestigious than the other: the tribal capitals had a court of 23. All cities of a minimum size (either 120 or 230 inhabitants) were required to have a court of 23, which was under the jurisdiction of the main court

(“little Sanhedrin”). These courts could make the death sentence. These existed on two levels, one more prestigious than the other: the smallest triad was found in villages with fewer than 120 inhabitants. Any minor court (including a three-lay court) could not make binding judgments and dealt only with money matters.

Participation in these courts required classical semikhah (rabbinic ordination), the conferral of judicial authority in an unbroken line from Moses. Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in AD 70, or at the latest since the abolition of the position of Nasi in AD 425, the transmission of Semikhah has been suspended. Attempts in the 16th century to reinstate the Semikhah were unsuccessful; Rabbi Yosef Karo was one of the recipients of this semikhah.

The Mishnah and Talmud distinguish between ritual or criminal matters and money matters (Issurim and Mamonoth) and lay down different rules for them, with criminal matters generally having much stricter limitations. Courts ruled in both cases. Any question that could not be resolved by a smaller court was referred to a higher court. If the Sanhedrin was still uncertain, divine opinion was obtained through the Urim ve-Tumim (the parchment in the high priest’s breastplate, inscribed with the name of God and capable of revealing supernatural clues).

Given the suspension of Semikhah, every Beth Din that existed, medieval or modern, is theoretically a court of lay people who act as arbiters. In practice they are given greater powers than the local takkanot ha-kahal (community regulations) and are generally composed of experienced rabbis. Modern training institutes, particularly in Israel, confer a dayan (religious judge) qualification that is superior to the normal rabbinical qualification.

Beth Din of Benghazi, 1930

Although ordinarily an orthodox beth din requires at least three Jews who know and obey halakha (Jewish law), in new communities and requirements halakha provides that even an orthodox Jew can establish a beth provided a thorough search has proved fruitless din, as each orthodox congregation is obliged to establish its own beth din.

Today[edit]

In Orthodox Judaism, traditions hold that a beth din consists of three practicing Jewish men, at least one of whom is widely halakha-trained, in order to be able to instruct the other members on all matters of halakha pertinent to the to hearing case are relevant. 2] The rabbis of the beth din need not be versed in all aspects of Jewish law, but only in the area concerned. For example, for conversion, a beth din need only have expertise in conversion, not necessarily in all areas of Jewish law.[3] There are also a number of opinions that allow women to serve in a Beth Din. One such opinion is Rabbi Ben Zion Uziel.[4] Despite this, there are currently no orthodox Batei Din with a woman as a member.

In progressive communities, as well as in other non-Orthodox branches of Judaism, women do serve in the Beth Din.[5]

In practice, a permanent beth din consists of three rabbis, while a beth din for an occasional matter (such as handling religious vows) need not consist of rabbis. A Beth Din dealing with cases involving complex monetary matters or large community organizations requires ‘judges’ (dayanim, singular: dayan) who need an additional semikhah (yadin yadin) enabling them to attend such a Beth Din and to assess complex cases involving highly technical legal issues. [citation required]

A beth din is required only for conversions and gittin (divorce documents), although laypersons are permitted to sit on the beth din for conversions.

In addition, there are Batei Din around the world overseeing the following matters: [citation needed]

A beth din is sometimes used within the Orthodox Jewish community to resolve civil disputes, with the Shulkhan Arukh[6] requiring civil cases to be resolved by religious rather than secular courts (arka’oth). Modern Western societies are increasingly allowing the settlement of civil disputes by private arbitration, allowing religious Jews to enter into agreements to have disputes arbitrated by a designated Bet Din. Through this device, the rules, procedures, and judgments of the Beth Din are accepted and can be enforced by secular courts in the same manner as those of a secular arbitration association. For example, in a 2018 decision, the Court of Appeals in Ontario, Canada, upheld an arbitration decision by the New York Rabbinical Court Tribunal Beth Din (or Bais Din) of Mechon L’Hoyroa in Brooklyn.[7][8] However, decisions of religious courts cannot be binding without the prior consent of both parties and are otherwise only for mediation.

Officers of a beth din[ edit ]

A Beth Din can have the following officers:

Av Beth Din ( אב בית דין , lit. ‘Chief of the Court’, abbreviated אב”ד ‎ / ABD) is the senior jurist who can participate in the decision of cases or advise the presiding judge. The Av Beth Din usually does so do be a highly respected rabbi and posek who can provide answers Traditionally, the employed rabbi served the local Jewish community as av beth din.

‎, literally ‘Chief of the Court’, abbreviated ‎/ABD) is the senior jurist who may participate in deciding cases or advise the chairman. That will usually be a highly respected one who can provide answers. Traditionally, the employed rabbi of the local Jewish community served as . Rosh Beth Din ( ראש בית דין, lit. ‘Head of the Court’, abbreviated ראב”ד) is synonymous with a chief judge. He will be the senior member of a panel of three judges. In smaller communities the av beth din also serves as rose .

‎, literally “Head of the Court”, abbreviated ‎) is equivalent to a Chief Justice. He will be the senior member of a panel of three judges. In smaller communities, the also serves as a . A dayan ( דיין‎, rabbinical judge, plural: dayanim) sits and decides on cases. A rabbinic judge can question and cross-examine witnesses directly. The Dayan hold a specialized ordination titled Yadin Yadin.

See also[edit]

Religious conversion of Gentiles

Naomi asks Ruth and Orpah to return to the land of Moab, by William Blake, 1795

Part of the Pentateuch in Hebrew, British Library Oriental MS. 1.497 with Numbers 6:3-10, dated the 12th century. Lines of the Pentateuch alternate with the Targum attributed to Onkelos (a convert to Judaism).

Conversion to Judaism (Hebrew: גיור, giyur) is the process by which non-Jews accept the Jewish religion and become members of the Jewish ethno-religious community. It is thus similar to both conversion to other religions and naturalization.[1][2] The procedure and requirements for the conversion depend on the carrier designation. Furthermore, conversion made in accordance with one Jewish denomination does not guarantee recognition by another denomination.[2] Usually, though not always, the conversions of more rigorous denominations are recognized by less rigorous ones, but not vice versa. Formal conversion is also sometimes undertaken by persons whose Jewish ancestry is questionable or uncertain, even if they were raised Jewish but may not be considered Jews under traditional Jewish law.[3]

In some cases, a person may forego formal conversion to Judaism and adopt some or all of Judaism’s beliefs and practices. Without formal conversion, however, many practicing Jews will reject the Jewish status of a convert.[4]

There are some groups that have adopted Jewish customs and practices. For example, the Subbotniks in Russia adopted most aspects of Judaism without formally converting to Judaism.[5] However, if a subbotnik or someone without formal conversion into a traditional Jewish community wishes to marry or immigrate to Israel under the Law of Return, they must be formally converted.[6]

Terminology[edit]

The word ger comes from the Hebrew verb lagur (לגור) and means “dwell” or “reside [at]”. In the Hebrew Bible, ger is defined as “foreigner” or “Sojourner.”[7] Rabbi Marc Angel writes:

The Hebrew ger (translated as “proselyte” in post-biblical times) literally means “inhabitant” and refers to a non-Israelite who lived in the Israelite community. When the Torah commands compassion and equal justice for the ger, it refers to these “residents”. The rabbinic tradition interpreted the word ger as referring to proselytes…”[8]

Angel’s explanation of the literal meaning of “ger” as alien is confirmed in biblical verses such as Lev 19:34:

The stranger who dwells with you shall be to you as a native among you, and you shall love him as yourself; for you were strangers in the land of Egypt. I am the Lord, your God.

Another passage that might be relevant to a conversion process concerns Gentile women who were captured in war and could be forcibly adopted as wives (Deuteronomy 21:10-14). Another verse that has been interpreted as referring to Gentiles converting to Judaism is Esther 8:17, although no process is described. (Esther 8:17).

The word is rendered with the Greek “proselyte” used in the Septuagint to mean a “stranger.” and a female convert is a Giyoret. In all branches of Judaism, a ger or giyoret is considered a full Jew; The literal meaning of “foreigner,” “resident,” or “foreigner” refers to the convert’s origin, not current status. Judaism, once converted to Karaitism, is no longer referred to as ger.[9]

In the Talmud, ger is used with two meanings: ger tzedek, referring to a “righteous convert,” a proselyte to Judaism, and ger toshav, a non-Jewish resident of the land of Israel who observed the seven laws of Noah and rejected all associations with idolatry. [10] In modern Hebrew, the unqualified term ger means ger tzedek.[11]

Overview [ edit ]

According to Maimonides (Isurei Biah 13:14), converts have been accepted since the dawn of Jewish history, and the foreign wives of Jewish leaders—like Samson and Solomon—were converts. Yet he says (Isurei Biah 13:15) that in times of Jewish political power, such as the days of Kings David and Solomon, batei dinim (Jewish courts) would not accept converts who might not have the right intention, and they had to wait and prove their intentions in order to be legally accepted.[12]

With the notable exception of some Syrian Jewish communities (principally the Brooklyn, New York and Deal, New Jersey communities)[13] all mainstream forms of Judaism are now open to sincere converts,[14] with all denominations accepting converts converted by them became denominations. Rules vary between denominations, as does the acceptance of some denominations’ converts by other denominations.

For Rabbinic Judaism, the laws of conversion (gerut) are based on law books and texts, including discussions in the Talmud, through the Shulkhan Arukh, and subsequent interpretations. (Many of the guidelines for accepting converts are based on the Book of Ruth and the way Ruth was brought into the fold through her mother-in-law, Naomi).[12] These rules are considered authoritative by Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism. [citation required]

It is commonly understood within Orthodoxy that halacha discourages proselytizing [citation needed], and religious rites discourage something. The majority of rabbis reject potential converts three times, and if the potential convert remains adamant in his desire to convert, the rabbi will then allow him to begin the process.[2] These practices have no solid basis in the written text, and while they were practiced in some places, they were not universal and a number of rabbis did not follow these practices.[15][16]

In order to convert, the candidate for conversion must undergo circumcision (men) and immerse themselves in the mikvah in front of a kosher Beth Din, consisting of three Jewish men who are Shomer Shabbat.[16] There is also a requirement to accept the commandments (although not necessarily an obligation to keep the mitzvot), although without this step there are many authorities who will accept the conversion as valid. In the past it is likely that conversions took place in this way and were decentralized and generally accepted after they were made.

Today the process has become more centralized, with the candidate for conversion having to convince a rabbi and the Beth Din of their sincerity, and a considerable amount of study will usually be required. They are then examined and formally accepted, the convert receiving a shtar geirut (“conversion certificate”).[17] As the conversion process becomes more centralized, there are only a limited number of permanent conversion courts “acceptable” to the Chief Rabbinate of Israel.

However, there are a number of rabbis who are willing to do decentralized conversions and who are recognized among themselves. Two of the best known of these rabbis are Chuck Davidson and Haim Amsalem.

Conservative Judaism takes a more lenient approach to the application of halachic rules than modern Orthodox Judaism. His approach to the validity of conversions is based on whether the conversion process followed rabbinic norms, rather than the reliability of those performing it or the nature of the commitments the convert made. [Citation needed] Accordingly, it can accept the validity of reform and Reconstructivist conversions, but only if they include immersion in a ritual bath (mikvah), appearance before a rabbinic court (beit din), and, for males, circumcision (Brit milah) or symbolic circumcision for those already circumcised (hatafat dam brit).[citation needed]

Reform Judaism’s requirements for conversion are different. The denomination states that “people considering conversion are expected to study Jewish theology, rituals, history, culture and customs and begin to integrate Jewish practices into their lives. The length and format of the degree varies from rabbi to rabbi and community to community, although most now require a course in basic Judaism and individual study with a rabbi, as well as attendance at religious services and participation in home practice and synagogue life .

Although in certain circumstances (e.g. in the case of adopted children or children whose parents convert) infant conversion may be accepted, children who convert are usually asked if they are Jewish after reaching religious adulthood – which is 12 years old want to stay for a girl and 13 for a boy. This standard is used by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, which accept Halakha as mandatory.[18][19]

Reconstructivist Judaism values ​​the symbolism of the rite of conversion and encourages those who were not born of Jewish parents who wish to convert to undergo this rite of passage. The Reconstructivist course of study for a prospective convert, determined by the rabbi and community with which the individual works, includes history, observance and belief, and learning how to make informed decisions. The ritual immersion for both men and women marks the conclusion of the process; circumcision or hatafat dam brit (symbolic drop of blood) for men (unless there is exceptional physical or emotional danger); a bet din (a dialogue with three knowledgeable Jews, at least one of whom is a rabbi), and often a public welcoming ceremony.[20]

Karaite Judaism does not accept Rabbinic Judaism and has different requirements for conversion. Traditionally non-proselytizing, Karaite Judaism’s long-standing abstinence from proselytizing has recently been lifted. On August 1, 2007, the Karaites reportedly converted their first new members in 500 years. At a ceremony at their Northern California synagogue, ten adults and four minors swore allegiance to Judaism after completing a year of college. This conversion comes 15 years after the Karaite Council of Sages reversed its centuries-old ban on accepting converts.[21]

Requirements[edit]

The Amoraim who produced the Talmud laid down three requirements for conversion to Judaism (Keritot 8b) to be witnessed and confirmed by a beth din hedyot rabbinic court composed of three Jewish males over the age of thirteen (they must Not be). Rabbi):[original research?]

Circumcision (Brit milah or hatafat dam brit) for males [2]

or ) for men immersion ( tevilah ) in a ritual bath ( mikvah ) for men and women [2]

) in a ritual bath ( ) for both men and women Offering of a specific offering (Korban) in the Temple (Beit Hamikdash) – this requirement is deferred until it is known that the Third Temple will be rebuilt.

The consensus of halachic authorities also requires that a convert understand and accept the duties of classical Jewish law. This is not explicitly mentioned in the Talmud, but was inferred by later commentators.[22]

After confirming that all of these requirements are met, the beth din issues a “Certificate of Conversion” (Shtar Giur) certifying that the person is now a Jew.

Early debate on the requirement of circumcision

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia article on circumcision of proselytes,[23] in the 1st century AD, before the Mishnah was published, the demand for circumcision of proselytes was an open issue between the zealot and liberal parties of ancient Israel. R. Joshua argued that a potential convert to Judaism must not only accept the Jewish faith and laws, but also immerse themselves in a mikvah. In contrast, R. Eliezer makes circumcision a condition of conversion. A similar controversy exists between the Shammaites and the Hillelites regarding a proselyte born without a foreskin: the former demanded the shedding of a drop of blood symbolic of the brit milah, thereby entering into the covenant; The latter declares it unnecessary.[24]

In discussions of the need for circumcision for those born of a Jewish mother, the Midrash supports the need for converts to be circumcised: “If your sons accept My deity [by undergoing circumcision], I will be their God and they bring into the country; but if they do not keep My covenant concerning circumcision or the Sabbath, they will not enter the Promised Land” (Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlvi). “The Sabbath keepers who are not circumcised are intruders and deserve punishment” (Midrash Deut. Rabbah i).

However, the opposite view is supported in the Babylonian Talmud by Joshua ben Hananiah: “A male convert who has been immersed but not circumcised, or circumcised but not immersed, is a convert.”[25] Note that this view is later given by the Talmud.

Flavius ​​Josephus, in Jewish Antiquities Book 20, Chapter 2, recorded the story of King Izates of Adiabene, who, on the advice of a Jewish merchant named Ananias, decided to follow the law of Moses. He wished to be circumcised, but his mother Helen, who herself embraced Jewish customs, advised against it on the grounds that subjects would not bear to be ruled by one who followed such “strange and strange rites”. Ananias also advised against it on the grounds that worship of God was superior to circumcision (Robert Eisenman in James the Brother of Jesus claims Ananias was Paul of Tarsus, who held similar views, although this is a novel interpretation taken from the mainstream science is not supported). and that God would forgive him for fear of his subjects. So Izates decided against it. Later, however, he was persuaded by “a certain other Jew who came from Galilee, whose name was Eleazar,” who was well acquainted with the law, on the grounds that reading the law was one thing and reading it was another to practice, and he did. When Helen and Ananias learned of this, they became very afraid of the possible consequences, but as Josephus put it, God cared for Izates. Since his reign was peaceful and blessed, Helen visited the Jerusalem temple to give thanks to God, and since there was a terrible famine at the time, she brought much food and help to the people of Jerusalem.[26]

Modern practice[edit]

The requirements for conversion vary somewhat within the different branches of Judaism, so whether or not a conversion from another denomination is recognized is often a religious-political issue. Orthodox rejection of non-Orthodox conversions derives less from misgivings about the conversion process itself, since conservative and even some Reformed conversions are very similar to orthodox conversions in duration and content, and more from the orthodox presumption that there was no conversion proper in the Jewish one Law taught according to orthodox Jewish standards.[27]

In general, mikvah immersion is an important part of a traditional conversion. If the person converting is male, circumcision is also part of the traditional conversion process. If the man to be converted is already circumcised, a ritual removal of a single drop of blood takes place (hatafat dam brit).[28] However, more liberal branches of Judaism have a looser requirement for immersion and circumcision.

Maturity[ edit ]

Someone who converts as a minor (under 12 for a girl and 13 for a boy) must meet the requirements of conversion, i.e. circumcision and mikveh, but does not have to perform “acceptance of mitzvot”. The conversion is instead al daat beth din, the acceptance is made by the Beth Din who directs the conversion. The child lives as a Jew until their bar/bat mitzvah, at which point they have the option to decline their conversion. Once they have accepted to continue living as Jews, conversion can no longer be refused.[29]

Reforming Jewish Views

In the United States, Reform Judaism rejects the concept that any rule or ritual should be considered necessary for conversion to Judaism. In the late 19th century, the Central Conference of American Rabbis, the official body of American Reform rabbis, formally resolved to allow converts to be admitted “without any rite of passage, ceremony, or observance whatsoever.” (CCAR Yearbook 3 (1893), 73-95; American Reform Responsa (ARR), No. 68, pp. 236-237.)

Although this resolution has often been scrutinized by many Reform rabbis, it nevertheless remains the official policy of American Reform Judaism (CCAR Responsa “Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert” 5756.13 and Solomon Freehof, Reform Responsa for Our Time, No. 15.) Thus American Reform Judaism does not require ritual immersion in a mikveh, circumcision, or acceptance of mitzvot as normative. Appearing before a Beth Din is encouraged but not deemed necessary. Converts are asked to commit themselves to the religious standards set by the local reform community.[30]

In practice, the requirements for a person’s conversion are set by the rabbi who sponsors the convert. Typically, Reformed rabbis require prospective converts to take a degree in Judaism, such as For example, take an introductory course in Judaism, attend services in a synagogue, and live as a Jew (however the individual rabbi interprets this). for a certain time. A period of one year is common, although the requirements of individual rabbis vary. If the sponsoring rabbi feels the candidate is ready, a beth din may be called. Other rituals such as immersion in a mikveh, circumcision (or hatafat dam brit), and a public ceremony to celebrate conversion are also at the discretion of the rabbi.[31][32]

Inter-denominational views[ edit ]

In response to the vast differences that exist within the Reformed community, the conservative Jewish movement attempted to establish a nuanced approach. The Conservative Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has issued a legal opinion stating that reform conversions can only be accepted as valid if they meet the minimum conservative halakhic requirements of Milah and T’vilah, appearing before a conservative Beth Din and a conservative Learn course included. (Proceedings of Committee on Jewish Law and Standards: 1980-1985, pp. 77-101.)

In general, branches of Orthodox Judaism regard non-Orthodox conversions as either insufficient or of questionable halachic observance, and such conversions are therefore not accepted by these branches of Judaism. Conversely, both Conservative and Reform Judaism accept the orthodox conversion process as valid. Since 2008, Haredi Orthodox religious courts in Israel have refused the conversion of a number of Orthodox rabbis because the chief rabbinate does not recognize the authority of the presiding rabbis.[33][34]

Intra-Orthodox controversy[ edit ]

In 2008, a Haredi-dominated Badatz in Israel annulled thousands of conversions conducted by Israel’s military rabbinate. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel, which is the only recognized authority on religious matters and is supported by Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, ruled against it, rendering the annulment legally invalid for purposes of Israeli law.[35]

Canadian Orthodox program [ edit ]

There are two Orthodox conversion programs in Montreal. One consists of a Bet Din (Jewish court) by community rabbis from the Rabbinical Council of America, Montreal Region (RCA). This program offers a way to convert according to the strict rules of halacha while making the process more “user-friendly” for non-Jews seeking a more “hands-on” or “modern orthodox” approach. The second program is overseen by Montreal’s Jewish community council, the Vaad Hair.

All candidates for conversion—which may include singles, Gentile couples, and adoption cases—must have a sponsoring rabbi and undergo a rigorous selection process. Conversions from both programs are recognized in Israel and around the world.

Karaite Views[ edit ]

Beginning in 2006, the Moetzet Hakhamim (Council of Wise Men) began accepting converts to Karaite Judaism through the Karaite Jewish University. The process requires a year of learning, circumcision (for males) and taking the vows Ruth made.

כִּי אֶל-אֲשֶׁר אֵלֵךְ אֵלֵךְ, וּבַאֲשֶׁר אָלִין-עַמִּ עַמִּי, וֵאלֹהַיִךְ. בַּאֲשֶׁר תָּמוּתִי אָמוּת, וְשָׁם אֶקָּבֵר; “For wherever you go, I will go; and where you come from, I will lodge; your people shall be my people, and your God my God; where you die, there I will die, and there I will be buried, the LORD do it with me, and more so, if only death part you and me.” Ruth 1:16-17

Try the “Who is a Jew?” output [edit]

1950s: planned Beth Din together [ edit ]

During the 1950s, Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik and other members of the Rabbinical Council of America engaged in a series of private negotiations with the leaders of Conservative Judaism’s Rabbinical Assembly, including Saul Lieberman; Their goal was to create a common orthodox-conservative national Beth Din for all Jews in the United States. It would create common standards for marriage and divorce. It was to be modeled on the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, where all judges would have been orthodox, while being accepted as legitimate by the larger conservative movement. Conservative rabbis in the Rabbinical Assembly formed a joint conference on Jewish law and devoted a year to this effort.

The project failed for several reasons. According to Orthodox Rabbi Louis Bernstein, the main reason for its failure was the Orthodox rabbis’ insistence that the Conservative Assembly of Rabbis agree to expel Conservative rabbis for actions they took prior to the formation of the new Beth Din, and the RA refused to do so [36] According to Orthodox Rabbi Emanuel Rackman, former President of the RCA, the main reason for the failure of the Orthodox Haredi rabbis was the view that any collaboration between Orthodoxy and conservatism was forbidden. In 1956 Rabbi Harry Halpern of the Joint Conference wrote a report on the decline of this beth din. He writes that negotiations between the Orthodox and Conservative denominations were completed and agreed upon, but then a new requirement was demanded by the RCA: The RA must “impose severe sanctions” on Conservative rabbis for acts they did prior to the formation of this new Beth Din have undertaken. Halpern writes that the RA “could not agree to a rigorous disciplining of our members at the behest of an outside group”. He goes on to write that although later efforts were made to work with the Orthodox, a letter was circulated by eleven Rosh Yeshivas declaring that Orthodox rabbis were forbidden to work with conservative rabbis.[37]

1978–1983: Denver program, patrilineal descent

A joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative, and Reformed Bet Din was established in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform standards for conversion to Judaism. A number of rabbis were orthodox and had semicha from orthodox yeshivas but served in synagogues without mechitza; These synagogues were called Traditional Judaism. Over a period of five years they carried out about 750 conversions to Judaism. In 1983, however, the joint Beth Din was dissolved due to the unilateral decision by American Reform Jews to change the definition of Judaism.[38]

The move was hastened by the patrilinearity resolution passed by the Central Conference of American Rabbis that year. This decision to redefine Jewish identity, as well as designating Denver as the pilot church for a new reform to recruit converts, convinced the traditional and conservative rabbis that they could no longer participate on the joint board…the national decision of the reform rabbinate put the traditional and conservative rabbis in an untenable position. You couldn’t work on a proselytizing program with rabbis who had such a different idea of ​​Jewish identity. In addition, they could not oversee conversions, which became more common because the reformers sought publicity that did not agree with their own understanding of how to deal with potential proselytes. Wertheimer, A Divided People, [38]

In particular, the Central Conference of American Rabbis passed a resolution in 1983 that dispensed with the need for formal conversion for anyone who has at least one Jewish parent who confirms Jewish identity. This deviates from the traditional position that requires formal conversion to Judaism for children without a Jewish mother.[39] The American Reform movement’s 1983 resolution has received mixed response from Reformed Jewish communities outside the United States. Notably, the Israeli Progressive Judaism movement has rejected patrilineal descent and calls for formal conversion for anyone without a Jewish mother.[40] In 2015, however, the majority of the UK Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing “that persons who lead a Jewish life and are patrilineally Jewish should be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish by an individual process may .”[41] The British Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis “would be able to make local decisions – ratified by the Beit Din – confirming Jewish status.”[41]

The end of the joint Beth Din program was welcomed by orthodox Haredi groups, who viewed the program as illegitimate. In addition, Haredi groups attempted to prevent non-Orthodox rabbis from following the traditional requirements of converts with a mikvah. According to the Haredi, having no conversion at all is better than a non-Orthodox conversion, since in their opinion all non-Orthodox conversions are not real conversions at all.[42]

1980s: proposed Israeli joint beth din [ edit ]

In the 1980s, modern Orthodox Rabbi Norman Lamm, Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshiva University, along with other American and Israeli Orthodox rabbis, worked with Conservative and Reformed rabbis to find a solution to the question “Who is a Jew?” Output. In 1989 and 1990, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir led efforts to find a way to resolve the impasse.

A plan was devised by Israeli Cabinet Secretary Elyakim Rubenstein, who spent many months secretly negotiating with rabbis of Conservative, Reformed, and Orthodox Judaism, including Yeshiva University faculty, with Lamm as a Rosh Yeshiva. They planned to form a joint panel that would interview people who converted to Judaism and were considering making aliyah (moving to the State of Israel) and would refer them to a beth din that would convert the candidate according to traditional halakha . All negotiating parties agreed:[citation needed]

Conversions must be conducted according to halakha, the beth din (rabbinical court) overseeing conversion would be orthodox, perhaps appointed by the chief rabbinate of Israel, and there would be tripartite dialogue throughout the process.

Many Reformed rabbis took offense at the idea that the Beth Din must be strictly halachic and orthodox, but they acquiesced. Als dieses Projekt jedoch bekannt wurde, veröffentlichten einige führende Haredi-Rabbiner eine Erklärung, in der sie das Projekt anprangerten und es als „Halacha-Verzerrung“ verurteilten. Rabbi Moshe Sherer, Vorsitzender der Agudath Israel World Organization, erklärte: „Ja, wir haben eine Rolle dabei gespielt, dieser Farce ein Ende zu setzen, und ich bin stolz darauf, dass wir das getan haben.“ Norman Lamm verurteilte diese Einmischung von Sherer und erklärte, dies sei “das Schädlichste, was er [Sherer] jemals in seiner vierzigjährigen Karriere getan hat”.

Rabbi Lamm wollte, dass dies nur der Anfang einer Lösung für die jüdische Uneinigkeit war. Er erklärte, wenn dieser einheitliche Bekehrungsplan nicht zerstört worden wäre, wolle er dieses Programm auf den Bereich der halachisch-jüdischen Scheidungen ausdehnen und damit das Mamzerut-Problem beenden.[43]

1997: Vorschlag der Neeman-Kommission [ bearbeiten ]

1997 erschien die Ausgabe “Wer ist Jude?” kam im Staat Israel erneut auf, und orthodoxe Führer wie Rabbi Norman Lamm unterstützten öffentlich die Neeman-Kommission, eine Gruppe orthodoxer, konservativer und reformierter Rabbiner, die daran arbeiten, gemeinsame Programme zur Konversion zum Judentum zu entwickeln. 1997 hielt Lamm eine Rede vor dem World Council of Orthodox Leadership in Glen Springs, New York, in der er die orthodoxen Juden aufforderte, diese Bemühungen zu unterstützen.

Lamm sagte seinen Zuhörern, dass sie die Bemühungen nicht-orthodoxer Führer schätzen und ermutigen sollten, traditionelle jüdische Praktiken ernsthafter in das Leben ihrer Anhänger zu integrieren. Sie sollten die Schaffung reformierter und konservativer Tagesschulen begrüßen und sie nicht als Bedrohung ihrer eigenen sehen, sagte Lamm. In vielen Gemeinden haben orthodoxe Tagesschulen oder orthodox orientierte Gemeinschaftstagesschulen eine große Anzahl von Schülern aus nicht-orthodoxen Familien. Die liberalen Bewegungen sollten geschätzt und ermutigt werden, weil sie etwas Jüdisches tun, auch wenn es nicht so ist, wie orthodoxe Juden es gerne hätten, sagte er. „Was sie tun, ist etwas, und etwas ist besser als nichts“, sagte er in seiner Rede. „Ich greife ganz offen die Vorstellung an, dass wir manchmal in der orthodoxen Gemeinschaft finden, dass es besser ist, ein Goi zu sein“ als ein nicht-orthodoxer Jude zu sein, sagte er in einem Interview.[44]

Das Komitee empfahl die Einrichtung eines gemeinsamen Instituts für jüdische Studien, das eine gemeinsame Anstrengung aller drei Strömungen des Judentums sein würde. Das Komitee empfahl auch, dass das Konversionsverfahren selbst vor speziellen Konversionsgerichten abgehalten werden sollte, die von allen Konfessionen im Judentum anerkannt werden sollten. Der Zweck des Vorschlags war es, eine Spaltung des jüdischen Volkes zu verhindern und gleichzeitig eine staatlich geförderte Konversionsregelung herbeizuführen. Am 7. September 1998 verabschiedete die Regierung den Bericht der Ne’eman-Kommission.

Ein Jahr später wurde das Gemeinsame Institut für Jüdische Studien gegründet und ist seitdem der offizielle staatliche Träger von Konversionskursen in Israel, einschließlich der militärischen Konversionskurse. 2015 wurde der Name des Instituts in Nativ – The National Center for Jewish Studies, Identity and Conversion geändert.

Umwandlungsaufhebungen [ bearbeiten ]

Eine neuere Entwicklung war das Konzept der Annullierung von Konversionen zum Judentum, manchmal viele Jahre nachdem sie stattgefunden haben, aufgrund einer Verringerung der religiösen Einhaltung oder eines Wechsels der Gemeinschaft durch den Konvertiten. Dies ist in der rabbinischen Literatur unbekannt, wo die Bekehrung als irreversibel angesehen wird. Chuck Davidson, ein moderner orthodoxer Experte für diese Konversionskrise, erklärt: “Seit dem Mittelalter schrieben die größten Rabbiner ausdrücklich, dass selbst wenn der Konvertit unmittelbar nach der Konversion losgeht, um Götzen anzubeten, die Person immer noch als Jude gilt.”[ 45] The justification given for the change in approach is that the original conversion must never have been valid in the first place as it is clear from the convert’s subsequent actions they were insincere at the time of conversion.

A situation of confusion and instability in Jewish identity in Israel was made worse when Haredi Rabbi Avraham Sherman of Israel’s supreme religious court called into question the validity of over 40,000 Jewish conversions when he upheld a ruling by the Ashdod Rabbinical Court to retroactively annul the conversion of a woman who came before them because in their eyes she failed to observe Jewish law (an orthodox lifestyle).[46][47]

This crisis deepened, when Israel’s Rabbinate called into question the validity of soldiers who had undergone conversion in the army, meaning a soldier killed in action could not be buried according to Jewish law.[48] In 2010, the rabbinate created a further distrust in the conversion process when it began refusing to recognize orthodox converts from the United States as Jewish.[49] Indeed, the great-niece of the renowned Zionist Nahum Sokolow was recently deemed “not Jewish enough” to marry in Israel, after she failed to prove the matrilineal Jewish descent for four generations.[50]

Following a scandal in which U.S. Rabbi Barry Freundel was arrested on charges of installing hidden cameras in a mikveh to film women converts undressing, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate said it would review the validity of all past conversions performed by Freundel, then quickly reversed its decision, clarifying that it was joining the Orthodox Rabbinical Council of America in affirming the validity of the conversions.[51]

In December 2014 an Israeli court decided that a conversion could be annulled. In his decision Justice Neal Hendel wrote: “Just as the civil court has the inalienable authority to reverse – in extremely rare cases – a final judgment, so too does the special religious conversion court. For otherwise, we would allow for judgments that are flawed from their inception to exist eternally.”[45]

Consequences[edit]

Once undergone, a valid religious conversion to Judaism cannot be overturned. However, a Beth Din may determine that the conversion is void as it was never undertaken correctly in the first place. For example, if the rite of mikveh was performed incorrectly.[52] In recent years many Orthodox conversions have been overturned. In 2008 Israel’s highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.[53] Debate on what constitutes a valid Beth Din for conversion and for annulling conversions has caused divisions in the Orthodox world. It is an implicit judgment on the character and uprightness of the rabbis in that religious court. For example, when Rabbi Barry Freundel was arrested on charges of voyeurism for filming women converts at the mikveh he supervised, Israel’s Chief Rabbinate initially threatened to review and possibly invalidate the conversions Freundel had been involved in approving. A crisis between American and Israeli rabbis was averted when the Chief Rabbinate agreed that all conversions completed by Freundel would be considered valid.[54]

Relations between Jews and proselytes [ edit ]

Judaism is not an openly proselytizing religion. Judaism teaches that the righteous of all nations have a place in the afterlife.[55] Much like in the other Abrahamic faiths, Jewish law requires the sincerity of a potential convert. In view of the foregoing considerations, most authorities are very careful about it. Essentially, they want to be sure that the convert knows what they are getting into, and that they are doing it for sincerely religious reasons. However, while conversion for the sake of love for Judaism is considered the best motivation, a conversion for the sake of avoiding intermarriage is gaining acceptance also.[56]

There is a tradition that a prospective convert should be turned away three times as a test of sincerity, though most rabbis no longer follow the tradition.[57] Neither the Rabbinical Council of America nor the Rabbinical Assembly, the leading American Orthodox and Conservative organizations suggest taking this action in their conversion policies,[58][59] with the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) and Union for Reform Judaism (URJ) actively opposing its practice.[60][61]

Halakhic considerations [ edit ]

Halakha forbids the mistreatment of a convert,[62] including reminding a convert that they were once not a Jew.[citation needed] Hence, little to no distinction is made in Judaism between those who are born Jewish and those who are Jewish as a result of conversion. However, despite Halakha protecting the rights of converts, some Jewish communities have been accused of treating converts as second-class Jews. For example, many communities of Syrian Jews have banned conversion and refuse to recognise any Jewish conversion, including those done under Orthodox auspices (possibly influenced by sects in Syria like the Druze which do not accept converts).[63]

According to Orthodox interpretations of Halakha, converts face a limited number of restrictions. A marriage between a female convert and a kohen (members of the priestly class) is prohibited and any children of the union do not inherit their father’s kohen status. While a Jew by birth may not marry a mamzer, a convert can.[64] Converts can become rabbis. For instance, Rabbi Meir Baal Ha Nes is thought to be a descendant of a proselyte. Rabbi Akiva was also a very well known son of converts. The Talmud lists many of the Jewish nation’s greatest leaders who had either descended from or were themselves converts. In fact, King David is descended from Ruth, a convert to Judaism.(Ruth 4:13–22) In Orthodox and Conservative communities which maintain tribal distinctions, converts become Yisraelim (Israelites), ordinary Jews with no tribal or inter-Jewish distinctions. Converts typically follow the customs of their congregations. So a convert who prays at a Sephardi synagogue would follow Sephardi customs and learn Sephardi Hebrew.[citation needed]

A convert chooses his or her own Hebrew first name upon conversion but is traditionally known as the son or daughter of Abraham and Sarah, the first patriarch and matriarch in the Torah, often with the additional qualifier of “Avinu” (our father) and “Imenu” (our mother). Hence, a convert named Akiva would be known, for ritual purposes in a synagogue, as “Akiva ben Avraham Avinu”; in cases where the mother’s name is used, such as for the prayer for recovery from an illness, he would be known as “Akiva ben Sarah Imenu.”[65]

Talmudic opinions on converts are numerous; some positive, some negative. A quote from the Talmud labels the convert “hard on Israel as a scab.” Many interpretations explain this quote as meaning converts can be unobservant and lead Jews to be unobservant, or converts can be so observant that born Jews feel ashamed.[66]

Jews by choice [ edit ]

The term “Jew by choice” is often used to describe someone who, with no ancestral connection to the Jewish people, chose to convert to Judaism. It is often contrasted with such terms as “Jew by birth” (or “Jew by chance”). The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation. According to this school of thought in Judaism, when non-Jews are drawn to Judaism, it is because they had been Jews in a former life. Such souls may “wander among nations” through multiple lives, until they find their way back to Judaism, including through finding themselves born in a gentile family with a “lost” Jewish ancestor.[67][better source needed]

Bnei Anusim [ edit ]

In recent decades, there has been a renewed Jewish conversion interest with some Bnei Anusim, that is, the descendants of Jews who were forced to convert to other faiths.

The Hebrew term for forced converts is “Anusim” (lit. “[the] forced [converts]”), while the descendants of said converts are called “Bnei Anusim” (lit. “[the] children [of the] forced [converts]”).

In the modern era, the single most notable and numerous group of Bnei Anusim converts are the Sephardic Bnei Anusim, descendants of those Sephardic Jews who were forced to convert to Christianity during the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition. They are found throughout Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and Iberoamerica (the Hispanic countries of the Americas plus Brazil). There has been a continuous steady growth among them who are now prospective converts, actively seeking conversions back to Judaism.[citation needed]

Since many Bnei Anusim (i.e. descendants of forced converts) lack an unbroken matrilineal Jewish line of descent or lack satisfactory documentary evidence to that effect (even if they can prove Jewish ancestry along one or all other of their lineages besides their direct matrilineal lineage), conversion has been a growing option for them to return to Judaism.[68]

See also[edit]

References[ edit ]

Media platform design team

What’s the problem, Mr. Sensitive – you don’t like ritual genital mutilation in the name of a god whose interest in human affairs seems to be zero? Imagine that.

In any case, although the major branches of Judaism—Reformed, Conservative, and Orthodox—differ in their adherence to the religious limitations of the faith, the short and blunt answer is yes or yes, but.

“If you are already circumcised,” says Rabbi Eric Stark, a director of the Union for Reform Judaism, “you will not be circumcised again. Once the foreskin is removed, it cannot be removed again.”

That is the good news.

“If you are a man converting to Judaism,” Rabbi Stark continues, “and you are already circumcised, there is the ritual of Hatafat dam Brit—the ritual blood drawing. It is generally what can best be described as a pin prick. Often people now use the blood test device like a diabetic would.”

We call that the relatively good news. The bad news?

“If you are a man who converted to Judaism and is not circumcised, most rabbis – and probably all conservative and orthodox rabbis – would require circumcision.”

About the deterrent effect, Rabbi Charles Savenor, an executive director of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, says: “If you’ve never been circumcised, that’s a big commitment. Is it a deterrent? I think when you believe in something and it’s that important to you, then you can embrace the whole of the experience.”

Take it from Answer Fella (born Avrum Felzmacher): First read Malamud’s The Assistant, then call a Mormon. Better bleed from the mouth.

Do you have a question? Send it to [email protected].

SIMILAR POSTS:

Arabic word, Islamic term; can mean “creed”, “religion” or “(religious) lifestyle”.

Not to be confused with religion

Dīn (Arabic: دين‎, romanized: Dīn, also anglicized as Deen) is an Arabic word with three general meanings: judgment, custom, and religion.[1] It is used by both Muslims and Arab Christians.

In Islamic terminology, the word refers to the way of life that Muslims must adopt in order to conform to divine law, including belief, character and deeds.[2] The term appears 98 times in the Qur’an with different connotations, including in the phrase yawm al-din (Arabic: يوم الدين‎‎), which is commonly translated as “Day of Judgment”, or the famous verse “La ikraha fid din”, which translates “Let there be no compulsion in religion.” (Translation by Abdullah Yusuf Ali).

Etymology[ edit ]

Arabic dīn has Semitic relatives, including Hebrew dīn (דין), Aramaic dīnā (דִּינָא), Amharic dañä (ዳኘ), and Ugaritic dyn (𐎄𐎊𐎐).

The Arabic sense of judgment is probably analogous to the Hebrew-Aramaic cognate root.[1] The Hebrew term “דין”, transcribed as “dīn”, means either “law” or “judgment”. In the Kabbalah of Judaism, the term can refer to “power” and “judgment” in addition to “Gevurah” (related to the feminine form of the Arabic adjective “Jabārah جَبَّارَة”).[3] In ancient Israel, the term played an important role in administrative and judicial procedures, e.g. B. Bet Din, literally “the house of judgment,” the ancient building block of the Jewish legal system.[4][5] The Arabic sense “habit, use” was derived by classical and modern lexicologists from the Arabic verbal forms dāna ( دانى , “to be in debt”) and dāna li- ( -دانى لِ , “to submit”).[1] Louis Gardet sees the Hebrew and Arabic senses connected through the concepts of retribution, guilt, obligation, custom and direction, which led him to translate yawm al-din as “the day when God will give direction to every human being”.[ 1 ]

Some scholars such as Nöldeke and Vollers have derived the Arabic sense of religion from Middle Persian den, which in turn derives from the Zoroastrian Avestan term daena. Others such as Gaudefroy-Demombynes and Gardet did not find this derivation convincing.[1]

Use in Islam[edit]

The word Dīn has been said to appear in as many as 79 verses in the Qur’an,[6] but as there is no exact English translation of the term, its precise definition has been the subject of some misunderstanding and disagreement. For example, the term is often translated as “religion” in parts of the Koran.[7]

Some Qur’anic scholars have translated Dīn in places as ‘faith'[8] Others suggest that the term ‘has been used in various forms and meanings e.g. Constitution, dominion, government, realm, decision, final outcome, reward and punishment. On the other hand, this word is also used in the sense of obedience, submission and allegiance.”[9]

In addition to the two broad usages referred to so far, sovereignty on the one hand and subjection on the other, others have noted[10] that the term Dīn is also widely used in a third meaning in translations of the Qur’an. Most famously, in its opening chapter al-Fātiḥah, the term is translated as “judgment” in almost all English translations:

1:3 مَٰلِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ transcribed as “Maliki yawmi ad-Dīni” and (usually) translated as “Master of the Day of Judgment”.

Noted Islamic scholar Fazlur Rahman Malik suggested that Dīn is best viewed as “the path to be followed”. In this interpretation, dīn is the exact correlate of shari’a: “while shari’a is the determination of the way and its proper subject is God, dīn is the observance of that path and its subject is man”.[11] “So if we abstract from the divine and human reference points, Shari’a and Dīn would be identical as far as the ‘Way’ and its content are concerned.”[11]

In many hadiths, the noise has been described as a halfway lifestyle:

Narrated by Abu Huraira, the Prophet said: “Religion (Dīn) is very simple and whoever overwhelms himself in his religion will not be able to continue in this way. So you should not be extremists but try to be close to perfection and receive the glad tidings that you will be rewarded and gain strength by worshiping morning and evening.” Sahih al-Bukhari, 1:2:38, (Fath-ul-Bari, page 102, volume 1)

See also[edit]

On weekends, many Americans gather in their respective places of worship and repeat the same word: Amen. But what does the word mean? And why are people saying that?

The Origins of Amen

Amen is commonly used after a prayer, creed, or other formal statement. It is spoken to express a solemn ratification or assent. It is used adverbially to mean “certainly”, “it is so” or “that is how it is”. Amen can be used in formal prayers within a prescribed scripture. But it is also used to underline personal prayers.

Amen can also be used as an affirmation outside of religious settings. When you shout, “We need access to quality education for all children,” there are those who might reply, “Amen!”

The word can also be used lightly and playfully: “Dinner is finally ready – Amen!” And the joke “Amen and a woman” dates from the 1850s. But all puns aside, where does the word come from?

Amen derives from the Hebrew āmēn, meaning “certainty”, “truth” and “verily”. It is found in the Hebrew Bible and in both the Old and New Testaments. In English, the word has two primary pronunciations: [ah-men] or [ey-men]. But it can be expressed in countless ways, from a soft whisper to a joyful cry. Either way, it has nothing to do with the words man or men – or their origin.

WATCH: Mishpocha: Image word of the day

Who Says Amen?

Modern worshipers of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism all use a version of the word, and records show that it has been used for centuries as an expression of assent after prayer.

In Judaism, parishioners say Amen in response to the words of the rabbi or spiritual leader. The term appears as part of a series of Jewish prayers.

In Christianity, amen occupies a central but often spontaneous position at the end of prayers or as a personal expression of affirmation of another’s words during a sermon or other religious discourse.

Islam, like Judaism, involves a more formal use of the word in rituals, but also considers it an appropriate way to end any type of prayer. Instead of Amen, Muslims generally say āmīn.

In Egyptian mythology, Amen or Amon was a deity represented by a ram, the god of life and procreation. It is only by coincidence that the word Amen resembles the name of this deity. The ancient Egyptian god has no relation to the Hebrew creed.

When we pray almost anything is allowed: dancing, twirling, kneeling or swaying. And words of affirmation are almost always spoken. Amen is certainly one. what are others

Jewish cemetery, burial and mourning customs

Tattoos allowed or taboo?

Is it true that I cannot be buried in an Orthodox cemetery with a tattoo? I am not referring to Holocaust markings.

Answer: The Torah forbids us from tattooing our bodies. Despite this, someone who has had tattoos can still be buried in a Jewish cemetery. The source of this prohibition is Leviticus 19:28: “You shall not cut yourselves a tattoo. I am the Lord.”

However, each Jewish funeral home has the right to set its own criteria for who may and may not be buried on their property. This stems from people’s desire (or right?) to be buried near others of their choice. Although there is technically nothing in Jewish law that prohibits a tattooed person from being buried in a Jewish cemetery, certain funeral homes – not the majority of them, or even close – will not take a person who has voluntarily tattooed himself bury themselves. since it is a permanent exhibition on the violation of Jewish law.

This practice by some funeral homes led to the common misconception that this prohibition was an integral part of Jewish law.

Chani Benjaminson,

Chabad.org

conversion to Judaism

Converting to Judaism is not easy. It involves many lifestyle changes and about a year of study.

Becoming a Jew is not just a religious change: the convert not only adopts the Jewish faith, but becomes a member of the Jewish people and embraces Jewish culture and history.

Conversion and Jewish Law

Conversion to Judaism is a process governed by Jewish religious law. Conversions are overseen by a religious court, which must be satisfied that the convert:

is sincere

converts for the right reasons

convert voluntarily

has in-depth knowledge of Jewish beliefs and practices

will lead a practicing Jewish life

There are also two ritual requirements:

A male convert must undergo circumcision – if he is already circumcised, a single drop of blood is taken as a symbolic circumcision

The convert must immerse himself in a Jewish ritual bath, a mikveh, with appropriate prayers

Judaism and Conversion

Judaism is not a missionary faith and as such does not actively seek to convert people (in many countries this has been prohibited by anti-Jewish laws for centuries).

Nonetheless, the modern Jewish community is increasingly welcoming of would-be converts.

Anyone who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in the truest sense of the word and is just as Jewish as someone who was born into Judaism. There is good precedent for this; Ruth, King David’s great-great-grandmother, was a convert.

Note: Not all Jewish conversions are accepted by all Jews. The more orthodox a congregation is, the less likely it is to accept conversion in a more liberal movement.

Orthodox Jews typically do not accept the validity of conversions conducted by non-Orthodox institutions – because many Orthodox Jewish communities do not accept that non-Orthodox rabbis have valid rabbinic status.

Heart and Soul spoke to people who have chosen to take the difficult path of converting to Judaism. Among others, Theo Heser, a former member of the Hitler Youth, who sees his conversion as an atonement, was interviewed.

To view this content, Javascript must be enabled and Flash must be installed. Visit BBC Webwise for full instructions

Why convert?

The most frequently mentioned reasons are:

because the person believes that the faith and culture of the Jewish people is right for them

to marry a Jewess

to raise children with Jewish identity

But only the first of these should be accepted as the true reason for conversion—the convert must have an overwhelming desire to join the Jewish people and share in their destiny, and a commitment to love God and follow their desires, like they are expressed in the Torah.

There is no other reason that can enable a person to truly enter into the covenant between God and the Jewish people, freely, without reservation, forever, and to the exclusion of all other faiths.

how to convert

Different forms of Judaism have different conversion mechanisms, but this overview of what’s involved covers the basics for all:

Discuss a possible conversion with a rabbi

Study Jewish beliefs, history, rituals and practices

learn some Hebrew

Participate in Jewish community life

believe in G‑d and the divinity of the Torah

agree to keep all 613 mitzvot (commandments) of the Torah

agree to live a fully Jewish life

circumcision (men only)

Immersion in a mikvah or ritual bath

Appear before a Bet Din (religious court) and seek their consent

Talking to the Rabbi

Conversion to Judaism is not something to be taken lightly. The rabbi will want to make sure that the person really wants to convert and that they know what they are doing.

Some rabbis used to test converts by rejecting them three times to see how sincere and determined they were. That’s unusual these days.

If a person doesn’t know a rabbi to talk to about conversion, they probably haven’t gotten close enough to Judaism and Jewish life to consider conversion. You should start talking to Jewish people and attend some synagogue services.

The rabbi asks the prospective convert many questions—not only as a test of his sincerity, but to help the convert develop a clear understanding of what he wants to do:

Why do you want to convert?

What do you know about Judaism?

Do you convert voluntarily?

Have you spoken to your family about conversion?

Will you accept Judaism as your only religious belief and practice?

Will you enter into the covenant between God and the Jewish people?

Will you raise your children Jewish?

Are you ready to study to convert?

Will you live as a member of the Jewish people?

To study

Would-be converts study Jewish beliefs, rituals, history, culture (including some Hebrew) and customs.

They do this through courses or through individual study with a rabbi. At the same time, they will begin attending church services, participating in homework (with members of their local congregation), and participating in synagogue life.

“Kosher” is a term used to describe foods that meet the strict nutritional standards of traditional Jewish law. For many Jews, keeping kosher is about more than just health or food safety. It is about reverence and adherence to religious traditions. However, not all Jewish communities adhere to strict kosher guidelines. Some individuals may choose to follow only certain rules—or none at all. This article examines what “kosher” means, outlines key dietary guidelines, and provides the requirements that food must meet in order to be considered kosher. Share on Pinterest Westend61/Getty Images

What does “Kosher” mean? The English word “kosher” derives from the Hebrew root “kashér”, meaning “pure, proper, or fit for consumption” ( 1 ). The laws that form the basis of a kosher dietary pattern are collectively referred to as “kashrut” and are found in the Torah, the Jewish book of sacred texts. Instructions for the practical application of these laws are transmitted through oral tradition (2). Kosher dietary laws are comprehensive and provide a rigid regulatory framework that not only specifies what foods are permitted or prohibited, but also dictates how permitted foods must be prepared, processed, and prepared before consumption (2). Summary “Kosher” is a term used to describe foods that conform to the dietary guidelines of traditional Jewish law. These laws determine what foods can be eaten and how they must be produced, processed, and prepared.

Certain Food Combinations Are Strictly Prohibited Some of the major kosher dietary guidelines prohibit certain food combinations—particularly the combination of meat and dairy products. There are three main categories of kosher foods: Meat (meaty): mammalian or poultry, and products derived therefrom, including bones and broth

Mammals or poultry and products thereof, including bones and broth Dairy (dairy): milk, cheese, butter and yoghurt

Milk, cheese, butter, and yogurt Pareve: all foods that aren’t meat or dairy, including fish, eggs, and plant-based foods. According to kosher tradition, foods categorized as meat must never be served or eaten at the same time as a dairy product. In addition, all utensils and equipment used to process and clean meat and dairy products must be kept separate – even down to the sinks where they are washed. After eating meat, you need to wait a certain amount of time before consuming dairy products. The actual duration varies between different Jewish customs, but usually ranges from 1 to 6 hours. Pareve foods are considered neutral and can be eaten with meat or dairy products. However, if a pareve food is prepared or processed using equipment used to process meat or dairy, it is reclassified as meat or dairy. Summary Kosher guidelines strictly prohibit the pairing of meat and dairy products. This also means that all utensils and equipment used to prepare meat and dairy products must always be kept separate.

Only certain animal products are allowed Many kosher rules relate to animal foods and the way they are slaughtered and prepared. Dairy products are treated as a separate entity and should never be consumed or prepared with meat or meat products. Fish and eggs are considered parve and also have their own rules. Meat (Meaty) The term “meat” in the kosher context generally refers to edible meat from certain species of mammals and poultry, and all derived products such as broth, gravy, and bones. Jewish law states that in order to be considered kosher, meat must meet the following criteria: It must come from ruminants with cloven — or cloven — hooves, such as cows, sheep, goats, lambs, oxen, and deer.

The only cuts of meat allowed come from the forequarters of kosher ruminants.

Certain domesticated poultry can be eaten, such as chicken, geese, quail, pigeon, and turkey.

The animal must be slaughtered by a shochet – a person trained and certified according to Jewish animal slaughtering laws.

The meat must be soaked before cooking to remove traces of blood.

All utensils used to slaughter or prepare the meat must be kosher and only intended for use with meat and meat products. The following types of meat and meat products are not considered kosher: pork, rabbit, squirrel, camel, kangaroo, and horse meat

Predators or scavengers such as eagles, owls, gulls and hawks

Cuts of beef from the hindquarters of the animal, such as B. Flank, Sirloin, Roast Beef, Sirloin and Shank Dairy Dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yoghurt are allowed but must meet certain rules to be considered kosher: They must come from a kosher animal.

They must never be mixed with meat-based derivatives such as gelatin or rennet (an animal enzyme), which is often the case with hard cheeses and other processed cheese products.

They must be prepared using kosher utensils and equipment not previously used to process meat-based products. Fish and Eggs (pareve) Although they each have their own rules, fish and eggs are both classified as pareve or neutral, meaning they contain no milk or meat. Fish is considered kosher only if it comes from an animal that has fins and scales, such as tuna, salmon, halibut, or mackerel. Aquatic creatures that do not have these physical characteristics – such as shrimp, crab, oysters, lobster and other types of shellfish – are not allowed. Unlike kosher meat, fish does not require separate utensils for its preparation and can be eaten with meat or dairy products. Eggs from kosher poultry or fish are allowed as long as they do not contain traces of blood. This means that each egg must be examined individually. Like fish, eggs can be eaten with meat or dairy products. Summary Kosher guidelines restrict the consumption of animal-based foods to specific animals and cuts of meat that are slaughtered and prepared in a specific manner.

Plant-based food guidelines Like fish and eggs, plant-based foods are considered pareve, or neutral, meaning they contain no meat or dairy and can be eaten with any of these food groups. These foods also have their own kosher guidelines—particularly regarding their processing—although these guidelines are slightly less restrictive than those for meat and dairy. Grains and Bread Grains and grain-based foods are considered kosher in their purest form. However, certain processing methods may ultimately deem them non-kosher. Processed grain products such as bread may not be kosher due to the equipment on which they are processed or the ingredients used. It is common for some breads to contain oils or shortening. If an animal shortening is used, the bread cannot be considered kosher. In addition, if baking pans or other utensils are greased with animal fats or otherwise used to cook meat or dairy dishes, the end product is no longer kosher. Because these types of processing methods are not typically identified on a standard nutritional or ingredients label, bread and other grain products must be certified kosher to ensure the food meets all relevant guidelines. Fruits and Vegetables Like grains, fruits and vegetables are kosher in their unprocessed form. However, because insects are not kosher, fresh fruits and vegetables must be inspected for the presence of insects or larvae before sale or consumption. In addition, fruit and vegetable products made with non-kosher equipment, such as For example, anything that processes milk and meat is not kosher. Nuts, Seeds and Oils In general, nuts, seeds and the oils derived from them are kosher. However, the intricate processing of these foods often renders them non-kosher due to cross-contamination of equipment that is also used to process meat and/or dairy products. Many vegetable and seed oils go through several complicated steps before they are considered edible. Each of these steps must be closely monitored to ensure kosher compliance ( 3 ). So, to be absolutely sure that the oils you use are kosher, it’s best to check the label for certification. Wine Like food, wine must be made using kosher equipment and ingredients to be considered kosher. This includes all the tools used to harvest and prepare the grapes for fermentation. However, since wine is important to many Jewish religious occasions, stricter rules apply. In fact, the entire kosher winemaking process must be conducted and supervised by practicing Jews. Otherwise the wine cannot be considered kosher. Summary Most plant-based foods are considered kosher. However, they may lose this status if processed or prepared using non-kosher equipment.

Different rules apply during Passover. Additional restrictions regarding kosher diets apply during the religious holiday of Passover. Although there are some differences in observing Passover dietary guidelines, all leavened grain products are traditionally forbidden. These foods are collectively referred to as “chametz” and include the following grains: Wheat

Oats

rye

barley

Spelled However, some of these grains may be allowed as long as they have not been in contact with moisture for more than 18 minutes and do not contain added leavening agents such as yeast. That’s why matzo, a type of unleavened flatbread, isn’t considered chametz — even though it’s traditionally made from wheat. Summary During Passover, all leavened grain products are forbidden. However, unleavened breads such as matzo are permitted.

How does the certification work? Due to the complexities of modern food production practices, it can be very difficult to ensure that the food you eat is kosher. For this reason, there are systems for certifying certain food products. Food that is certified kosher will have a label on its packaging indicating that it has met all necessary requirements. There are dozens of different kosher labels, many of which come from different certification organizations. If a food item is certified for Passover, this is indicated with a separate label. The labels can also indicate whether a food is dairy, meat, or parve. If you’re trying to follow kosher dietary guidelines, it’s best to only choose foods with these labels to avoid accidentally eating something non-kosher. Summary If you are following a kosher diet, be sure to check the labels when you shop. Kosher foods often come with certification that guarantees they meet all the necessary requirements.

meanings

Aramaic Baby Names Meaning:

In Aramaic baby names, the name Beth means: A house of poverty.

English Baby Names Meaning:

In English baby names, the meaning of the name Beth is: My God is Generous or God of Plenty, commonly used as a name in its own right. Beth was one of the heroines of Louisa M. Alcott in her 19th-century novel Little Women.

Greek Baby Names Meaning:

In Greek baby names, the meaning of the name Beth is: From Hebrew Elisheba, meaning either Oath of God or God is contentment. Famous Bearer: Old Testament Elizabeth was the mother of John the Baptist and one of the earliest known bearers of this name; Queen Elizabeth the second.

Hebrew Baby Names Meaning:

In Hebrew baby names, the meaning of the name Beth is: or Elizabeth, from Elisheba, meaning either oath of God, or God is contentment. Also a diminutive of Bethia (daughter or worshiper of God) and of Bethany, a New Testament village near Jerusalem.

Scottish Baby Names Meaning:

In Scottish baby names, the name Beth means: This Hebrew name became popular in Scotland in the 17th century because of its association with the Gaelic ‘Beath’, meaning ‘life’.

American Baby Names Meaning:

In American Baby Names, the meaning of the name Beth is: From the Hebrew Elisheba, meaning either oath of God or God is contentment. Famous Bearer: Old Testament Elizabeth was the mother of John the Baptist and one of the earliest known bearers of this name; Queen Elizabeth the second.

Teacher of the Torah in Judaism

A rabbi ( ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism.[1] One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as a semikha—after studying Jewish texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BC-73 AD) and Talmudic (70-640 AD) eras, when learned teachers assembled to study the written and oral laws of Judaism codify. The title “Rabbi” was first used in the first century AD. In recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi have been increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister, hence the title “Kanzelrabbier”, and in 19th-century Germany and the United States, rabbinical activities, including preaching, pastoral care, and representing the community externally , all gained importance.

Within the various Jewish denominations, there are different requirements for rabbinical ordination and disagreement over who is recognized as a rabbi. For example, only a minority of the Orthodox Jewish communities accept the ordination of female rabbis.[2][3] Non-Orthodox movements have opted for what they see as halachic reasons (Conservative Judaism) as well as ethical reasons (Reform and Reconstructivist Judaism).[4][5]

Etymology and pronunciation[ edit ]

The word comes from the Mishnaean Hebrew construct רְבִּי rǝbî, [a], meaning “master [name]”; The standard Hebrew noun is רב rav “master”. רב rav is also used as a title for rabbis,[7] as well as rabbeinu (“our master”) and ha-rav (“the master”). See also Rav and Rebbe.

The Hebrew root, in turn, derives from the Semitic root ר-ב-ב (R-B-B), which in Biblical Aramaic means “great” in many ways, including “revered,” but appears primarily as a prefix in construct forms.[8] Although the usage rabim “many” (like 1 Kings 18:25, הָרַבִּים‎) “the majority, the multitude” for the gathering of the community occurs in the Dead Sea Scrolls, there is no evidence of an association of this usage with the later title “Rabbi”.[9] The root is related to the Arabic ربّ rabb,[10] meaning “Lord” (commonly used when speaking of God, but also to worldly lords), and to the Syriac word emerging crème rabi.

Some communities, particularly Sephardic and Yemeni Jews, historically pronounced the title רִבִּי ribbī; This pronunciation also competed with רְבִּי rǝbî and רַבִּי rabī in Ashkenaz up to modern times.

Historical overview[ edit ]

Rabbi is not a profession found in the Hebrew Bible, and ancient generations did not use related titles such as rabban, rabbi, or rav to describe either the Babylonian sages or the sages in Israel. For example, Hillel I and Shammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) did not have a rabbinic title preceding their names. The titles “Rabban” and “Rabbi” are first mentioned in Jewish literature in the Mishnah. Rabban was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the Elder, Rabban Simeon his son, and Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were first-century patriarchs or presidents of the Sanhedrin. Early recipients of the title Rabbi include Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, beginning in the days of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai’s disciples. The title “Rabbi” occurs (in Greek transliteration ῥαββί rabbi) in the books of Matthew, Mark and John in the New Testament, where it is used in reference to both “scribes and Pharisees” and Jesus. 13] According to some, the title “Rabbi” or “Rabban” was first used after AD 70 to refer to Yochanan ben Zakkai and his disciples, and references in rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis at the beginning of the 1st century AD th century are anachronisms or retrospective honorifics.[14] Other scholars believe that by the beginning of the 1st century AD the term “rabbi” was a well-known informal title and that therefore the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis actually reflect those used in this Reflect titles used at the time.[15]

The governments of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were based on a system that included the Jewish kings, the Jewish prophets, the legal authority of the Jerusalem High Court, the Great Sanhedrin, and the ritual authority of the priesthood. Members of the Sanhedrin were required to receive their ordination (semicha) in an unbroken lineage from Moses, but were not referred to as rabbis, but referred to as priests or scribes, like Ezra, who is called “Ezra the Priest” in the Bible, the scribe, a writer of the words of God’s commandments and statutes for Israel.”[16] “Rabbi” as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible,[17] although later rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise biblical figures.[18]

With the destruction of the two temples in Jerusalem, the end of the Jewish monarchy, and the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and priesthood, the focus of scientific and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the men of the Great Assembly (Anshe Knesset HaGedolah) . This assembly consisted of the earliest group of “rabbis” in the more modern sense of the word, in large part because they began formulating and explaining what became known as Judaism’s “Oral Law” (Torah SheBe’al Peh). This was eventually encoded and codified in the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinic scholarship, resulting in what is known as Rabbinic Judaism.

Talmudic period[ edit ]

From the 1st to the 5th centuries, the sages of the Land of Israel who received formal ordination (semicha) were bestowed the title Rabbi, while the lesser title Rav was given to sages who received formal ordination in the Babylonian academies taught could not be performed outside the land of Israel.[17] (However, another opinion holds that “Rabbi” and “Rav” are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect.[19]) Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: “Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, one’s name is greater than Rabban”.[20]

After the suppression of patriarchy and the Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, formal ordination in the strict sense no longer existed. A recognized scholar might be named Rav or Hacham, like the Babylonian sages. The transmission of what was learned from master to disciple remained of enormous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification as such.

Middle Ages [edit]

In the early Middle Ages, “rabbi” was not an official title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great learning and reputation.[17] After the rise of Karaism, Jews who still followed Talmudic traditions became known as “Rabbanites”.[17] Initially communities may have a religious judge appointed by the central geonate who often holds a certification known as Pitka Dedayanuta or titled Chaver (short for Chaver Besanhedrin Hagedolah, used in Israel) or Aluf (used in Babylonia). .[17] In the 11th century, when the geonate was weakening, it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority.[17] In the 11th-12th In the 19th century, some local rabbinical authorities in Spain received a formal certification known as ketav masmich or ketav minui in preparation for their leadership role.[17] Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the congregation and teach Torah, and the social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate.

Up until the Black Death, Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars in a council rather than by the decision of a single authority.[21] The concept of a single person serving as the religious authority for a particular area (the Mara de’atra) emerged in the 14th century.[17] Formal ordination is first recorded under Ashkenazim with Meir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who gave scholars the formal title Moreinu (our teacher), although it probably existed somewhat earlier.[22] In the 15th century, this formal ordination (known as semicha) became necessary in order to be recognized as a rabbi.[21] Initially, some Sephardic communities rejected such formal ordination, but over time the system was adopted by them as well.[17]: 13

18-19 century [ edit ]

With Jewish emancipation came a dramatic change in rabbinic functions. Duties that were once the primary focus of rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less important, while other duties that were secondary, such as preaching, gained prominence.

In nineteenth-century Germany and the United States, the duties of the rabbi began to resemble in some respects the duties of other clergymen, such as the Protestant Christian minister, and the title “Chancellor Rabbi” seemed to describe this phenomenon. Sermons, pastoral care, and the representation of the congregation to the outside world gained in importance.[17] Non-Orthodox rabbis now spend more time in these functions than in teaching or answering questions about Jewish law and philosophy on a day-to-day basis. Within the modern Orthodox community, many rabbis are still primarily concerned with the doctrine and issues of Jewish law, but many are increasingly engaged in the same pastoral functions.[23]

Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary between God and man. This idea has traditionally been considered outside the confines of Jewish theology. Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered to have any special powers or abilities.

Rabbis taught children in 2004

Features [ edit ]

Rabbis serve the Jewish community. As such, their functions vary as the needs of the Jewish community vary over time and from place to place.

Study and Teaching Rabbis have always been key links in the chain of transmission (Masorah) through which knowledge of the Torah was passed down through the generations.[24] Learning from their teachers, adding their own new insights (hidushim), and educating the public have always been the main tasks of the rabbinate. Studying the Torah is a rabbi’s lifelong endeavor, which does not end with ordination. A rabbi is expected to set aside time for study each day. A rabbi who does not continually replenish his or her supply of Torah study will lack the knowledge, inspiration, and mastery of Jewish law and traditions required to perform all other rabbinic duties. Torah knowledge once acquired must be passed on, for it is the heritage of all Israel.[25] Lessons by rabbis take place in many places – of course in the classroom, in the elementary school (heder), in the middle school (yeshiva) and in the high school (kollel), but also, especially in ancient times, in the vineyard, in the market place and in the circle of disciples.[26] In many synagogues, the rabbi gives a brief daily lesson for those attending morning or evening services. The sermon is another form of public education that often combines biblical passages with a contemporary ethical message,[27] and no Jewish meal or celebration is complete without the rabbi’s “d’var Torah”—a brief explanation of biblical verses, related to the event. Aside from face-to-face teaching, rabbis who are prone to authorship have produced a vast body of rabbinic literature dealing with all aspects of the Jewish tradition—Bible commentaries, law books, responsa, mystical and ethical tracts, and sermon collections are examples of common genres of rabbinic literature Literature. Judgment Before emancipation, rulers delegated discipline and dispute resolution within the Jewish community (kahal) to the Jewish community itself according to Jewish law before the Jewish court of the city. The city rabbi, with his extensive knowledge of Torah law (halachah), was to act as the presiding judge of the court (av beth din), although lay judges could judge with him. The sentences were carried out with fines and municipal excommunications of various degrees, if necessary.[29] After emancipation, Jews as citizens of their countries turned to civil courts to settle disputes. Today, rabbinic courts remain active under the auspices of each Jewish denomination for religious matters such as conversion and divorce, and even on a voluntary basis for civil matters if the parties voluntarily choose the rabbinic judges as their arbitrators.[30 ] In Israel there are rabbinic courts for civil status matters. Legislation During the centuries of Jewish self-government, some problems were viewed as regional or universal and could not be solved by a single rabbi acting alone. At this time, rabbinical synods were called for concerted action, bringing together the region’s prominent rabbis to discuss solutions and issue binding regulations (takkanot) for their congregations. The regulations covered matters as diverse as dowry and marriage law, relations with non-Jews, use of civil courts, education of orphans, anti-counterfeiting measures, and the hiring of school teachers.[31] The most famous of these ordinances is attributed to Rabbeinu Gershom and was probably enacted at a rabbinic synod he convened c. 1000 AD[32] The decree, which is still in effect today, prohibits polygamy among Jews in the West. In modern times, rabbis have issued takkanot in the State of Israel,[33] and the major Jewish movements, such as Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionists, issue takkanot for their members. Today, most community rabbis are members of a national rabbinic organization associated with their movement [Note 1] and also an association of local rabbis in their city. When these bodies discuss local and national issues, they function much like the synods of rabbis of the past. Religious Oversight The Jewish community requires a number of religious institutions for daily life, and it is incumbent on the rabbis, with their knowledge of Jewish law, to oversee them to ensure they are operating in accordance with Jewish law. Examples would be Jewish slaughter (shekhita), Jewish dietary laws in shops and institutions (kashrut), the ritual bath (mikveh), elementary school (heder), Sabbath boundaries (eruvin), and the funeral society (hevra kadisha). Traditionally, this function fell to the city’s rabbi. In modern times, rabbis specializing in this type of oversight find full-time employment as mashgiach (overseers of ritual law), and some of these functions are now performed by national organizations such as the Orthodox Union, which offers kosher certification.[37] Pastoral Counseling In addition to answering questions about Jewish law and ritual, a community rabbi can often be asked for advice on personal matters. Much of a modern rabbi’s time is devoted to pastoral care, including visiting the sick and ministering on life-cycle occasions.[17] In the pre-modern era, rabbis had no special training in pastoral care, instead relying on their personal qualities of empathy and caring. These factors continue to shape rabbinic deliberation in modern times. However, modern rabbinic seminaries have introduced courses in psychology and pastoral care as part of the required rabbinic curriculum and offer internships in counseling and social services to their rabbinic students. It is customary among Hasidic Jews to turn to the Rebbe for advice on personal matters. Leading prayer services Traditionally, rabbis have not led prayer services in the modern sense. There is no requirement for a rabbi to be present at public prayer. The Jewish liturgy is recorded and printed in prayer books (siddurim), the vocal parts are sung by a cantor (hazan) and the Torah part is read by a trained reader (ba’al koreh). When the rabbi was present, he or she would sit in front near the ark, and out of respect, the pace at which the rabbi recited his or her prayers could dictate the pace of the service. When halachic questions about the service arose, the rabbi answered them. In modern synagogues, the rabbi takes a more active role in leading prayer services. In some synagogues, the rabbi is permitted to select passages from the prayer book for public reading, omit some passages for brevity, and add special prayers to the service. The rabbi may guide the congregation in interactive reading, giving page numbers and commenting on the liturgy from time to time. At Sabbath and holiday services, the community rabbi preaches a sermon either immediately before or immediately after reading the Torah. Celebrating Life Events Jewish law does not require the presence of a rabbi at a wedding, bar or bat mitzvah, circumcision, funeral, a house of mourning, or the unveiling of a memorial in a cemetery. At the same time, Jewish law prescribed requirements for each of these events and rituals. It therefore became customary for rabbis to be present and to lead the congregation at celebrations and mourning. In modern times, it has become virtually mandatory for the rabbi to attend these events, and service to the community in these settings has become an important aspect of the modern rabbinate. Rabbis are always present in Jewish divorces that require a rabbinic court (beth din). Charitable Works The synagogue was a place where donations were collected every weekday after services and then distributed to the needy before Sabbaths and holy days. However, most synagogues propose that parishioners support the synagogue through an annual contribution payment, usually collected monthly. It was not the rabbi who collected these sums; this task was entrusted to the sacristans, the guardians of the charities and charities.[39] But it was the rabbi’s job to teach that charity (tzedaka) is a core Jewish value. The rabbi did this by preaching, teaching, and leading by example—hosting poor city yeshiva students at the home table and offering a kosher meal to Jewish travelers. Maimonides formulated a ladder consisting of eight grades of charity, beginning with grudging giving and ending with teaching someone a trade.[40] Rabbi Israel Salanter (1809-1883) was once asked, “How do you provide for your spiritual needs?” He replied, “By providing for the physical needs of another.”[41] Today, Jewish associations and foundations collect and distribute most Donations within the Jewish community. The rabbi, however, retains the task of teaching the value of charity and often personally participates in appeals for the synagogue and for national and international purposes. Role model function The rabbi serves as a role model for the congregation through his conduct and demeanour. Parishioners are astute observers of their rabbi’s personality traits, family life, professional behavior, recreational activities, and more generally the way he or she treats others. Rabbis are aware of this and at best consciously shape their behavior in such a way that it represents Jewish values ​​to the outside world and to the outside world. This publicly exemplary aspect of the rabbinate has direct application in Jewish law. The manner in which the greatest rabbis and Torah scholars have behaved can become a precedent in Jewish law known as ma’aseh.[42] For example, based on accounts of what rabbis were doing in the Talmud, Maimonides decided that one engaged in public affairs should not interrupt one’s duties of reciting certain prayers.[43] Outreach, also known as kiruv (bringing near) Some rabbis direct and guide activities aimed at reaching out to Jews unrelated to Judaism or who have fallen short of its customs. These include “beginner services” where the Jewish liturgy is abbreviated and explained, and Shabbat, where unaffiliated Jews are received by a faithful family during the Sabbath to experience the day in a religious setting and learn about its rituals and to learn customs. Chabad Outreach sends many rabbis and their wives to post in Chabad homes worldwide to specifically reach unaffiliated Jews. Conversions Most rabbis will, from time to time, encounter someone who is not a Jew seeking information about Judaism or who is interested in converting to Judaism. This can occur when one member of a marriage couple seeks conversion or on other occasions that do not involve intermarriage. Based on the rabbi’s training and assessment of the individual’s motivations and goals, the rabbi’s approach can range from discouraging the potential convert to mentoring and referring them to a conversion class, in accordance with the rabbinical movement’s conversion policy.[44] One or three rabbis will serve in the Beth Din conducting conversion. There are no rabbis who serve as “Jewish missionaries” per se; there are no parallels in Judaism with the proselytizing of other faiths.[45] Matchmaking In times when matchmaking was common, rabbis participated.[46] Rabbis were well acquainted with their parishioners and especially with the young unmarried men who attended their yeshivas. The parents did not hesitate to ask the rabbi for suitable matches. Today this practice continues in Orthodox circles where contact between the sexes is not customary, and in all branches of Judaism a rabbi who can assist in this area will not hesitate to do so.[47 ] Synagogue Administration The modern synagogue is a non-profit religious corporation governed by a board of directors elected by its members. However, the board members are not present on a day-to-day basis. In most synagogues, the rabbi’s job is to administer the synagogue, oversee the staff, manage the physical facility, review (if not write) the newsletter, and interact with the fraternity, sorority, and youth organizations. Very large synagogues may employ a separate administrator or assistant rabbi to perform some or all of these functions. Pastoral Care Jewish Pastoral Badge, U.S. Air Force [48] and rabbis serve in the Israel Defense Forces. The Hillel Foundation provides rabbis and Jewish services on 550 campuses [49] while Chabad operates single-rabbi Jewish centers on nearby 150 college campuses. [50] Local rabbis perform other part-time pastoral functions in hospitals, retirement homes, and prisons. Worth mentioning are the rabbis who accompanied Jews to concentration camps during the Nazi era; Under difficult circumstances, they continued to provide rabbinical services such as ritual observance, counseling, and pastoral care to the victims of Nazi persecution whenever possible.[51] Public Affairs As leaders of the Jewish community, many rabbis devote a portion of their time to activities in the public sphere, particularly where Jewish interests are at stake. They engage in dialogue with officials and community groups, interact with school boards, advocate for and against legislation, participate in public debates, write newspaper columns, appear in the media, and march with others in parades and demonstrations to show their support for causes . The extent and tenor of these activities are dictated by the rabbi’s own conscience and by the social and political inclinations shaped by Jewish values. Defense of the Faith Rabbis are often asked to defend the Jewish faith. During the Middle Ages, the Church arranged for a series of public disputations between rabbis and priests intended to “refute” the Jewish faith and condemn its religious texts, including the Talmud.[52] The rabbis did well in the debate with their superior understanding of Jewish texts, and mass conversions to Christianity did not take place. However, following these disputations, local rulers, at the behest of the Church, committed carts full of valuable Hebrew manuscripts to the flames.[53] Today, rabbis are involved in countering the activities of missionaries aimed at converting Jews to other religions, for example by declaring that one cannot be of the Jewish faith while believing in either the Christian God or the Christian Messiah. [54] Interfaith Activities Some rabbis engage in interfaith dialogue with ministers of other faiths. They can accept groups of students from religious schools of other faiths and take part in interreligious services. You will see these activities as a means of deepening understanding and reducing misunderstandings in a diverse society. Other rabbis, particularly those belonging to Orthodox Judaism, generally do not engage in interfaith dialogue on theology. However, they will hold discussions with clergymen of other faiths on matters of common social interest.[55] Non-practicing Rabbis There is a section of the rabbinate that does not engage in rabbinical work on a daily basis, except perhaps for study. Because rabbinic ordination (semikhah) has the characteristics of a postgraduate academic degree, some study to receive ordination but then pursue other careers in secular business, education, or the professions. These rabbis may from time to time be asked to perform a rabbinical function ad hoc and voluntarily, e.g. to perform a wedding ceremony or to answer a religious question. At other times, they function as regular members of the Jewish community. Rabbis who do not practice the profession do not have negative attitudes attached to them. They are likely to be admired in their communities for their decision to spend years engaging in advanced Torah study for their own sake.

compensation [edit]

In ancient times, those who performed rabbinical functions, such as judging a case or teaching students the Torah, received no compensation for their services.[56] Being a rabbi was not a full-time job, and those who served had other jobs to support themselves and their families, such as lumberjack, sandal maker, carpenter, water carrier, farmer, and tanner.[57] A respected scholar, Rabbi Zadok (1st century AD), had said “never use the Torah as a spade for digging”[58] and this was understood to mean that one’s knowledge of the Torah should never be used for one should use inappropriate purpose such as earning a fee. Nonetheless, as honored members of the community, Torah sages were granted a number of privileges and exceptions that somewhat alleviated their financial burdens. These included things like tax exemption from local taxes,[59] marketplace priority (first in, first out in terms of their trade),[59] personal services from their disciples (shimush talmedei hakhamim),[60] silent partnerships with wealthy merchants,[ 61] and a surrogate fee to replace their lost earnings if they had to leave their jobs to perform a rabbinic function (sekhar battalah).[62]

Während der Zeit der Geonim (ca. 650–1050 n. Chr.) änderten sich die Meinungen zur Entschädigung. Es galt als unangemessen, dass die Führer der jüdischen Gemeinde als Arbeiter oder Warenverkäufer auf dem Markt auftraten, und die Führung einer jüdischen Gemeinde wurde zu einer Vollzeitbeschäftigung. Unter diesen Bedingungen sammelten die Geonim im In- und Ausland Steuern und Spenden zur Finanzierung ihrer Schulen (Jeschiwot) und zahlten Gehälter an von ihnen ernannte Lehrer, Beamte und Richter der jüdischen Gemeinde.[63] Maimonides (1135–1204), der seinen Lebensunterhalt als Arzt verdiente, bekräftigte die traditionelle Ansicht, der jüdischen Gemeinde unentgeltlich rabbinische Dienste anzubieten.[64] Es bleibt das Ideal. Aber die Umstände hatten sich geändert. Jüdische Gemeinden benötigten Vollzeit-Rabbiner, und die Rabbiner selbst zogen es vor, ihre Tage damit zu verbringen, Tora zu studieren und zu lehren, anstatt in einem weltlichen Gewerbe zu arbeiten.

Bis zum 15. Jahrhundert war es für jüdische Gemeinden die Norm, ihre Rabbiner zu entschädigen, obwohl der Vertrag des Rabbiners eher auf eine „Suspendierungsgebühr“ (sekhar battalah) als auf ein Gehalt verweisen könnte, als ob er auf ein Gehalt aus weltlicher Beschäftigung verzichten würde. 65] Die Höhe der Gehälter variierte je nach Größe der betreuten Gemeinde, wobei Rabbiner in großen Städten gut entlohnt wurden, während Rabbiner in kleinen Städten möglicherweise ein kleines Gehalt erhielten.[66] Rabbiner konnten ihr rabbinisches Einkommen aufbessern, indem sie damit verbundene Funktionen übernahmen und Gebühren dafür entgegennahmen, wie zum Beispiel als Schreiber, Notar und Archivar der Gemeinde zu dienen, in der Grundschule oder Yeshivah zu unterrichten, Bücher zu veröffentlichen, Zivilprozesse zu schlichten oder sogar als zu dienen Heiratsvermittler.[67]

Mit der Gründung von Rabbinerseminaren ab dem 19. Jahrhundert erfuhr das Rabbinat eine bis heute andauernde Professionalisierung. Gegenwärtig findet ein ordinierter Absolvent eines Rabbinerseminars, das einem der modernen Zweige des Judentums, der Reform, der Konservativen, der Rekonstruktion oder der modernen Orthodoxie angehört, eine Anstellung – sei es als Gemeinderabbiner, Lehrer, Kaplan, Hillel-Direktor , Lagerleiter, Sozialarbeiter oder Verwalter – über das Vermittlungsbüro seines oder ihres Seminars. Wie jeder moderne Berufstätige wird er oder sie die Beschäftigungsbedingungen mit potenziellen Arbeitgebern aushandeln und einen Vertrag unterzeichnen, in dem Aufgaben, Dienstzeit, Gehalt, Sozialleistungen, Rente und dergleichen festgelegt sind.[68] Das Gehalt und die Leistungen eines Rabbiners sind heute in der Regel ähnlich wie bei anderen modernen Berufstätigen wie Anwälten und Buchhaltern mit ähnlicher postgradualer Ausbildung.[69] Es ist auch möglich, nebenberuflich im Rabbinat tätig zu sein, z.B. in einer Synagoge mit geringer Mitgliederzahl; Das Gehalt des Rabbiners wird proportional zu den geleisteten Diensten sein und er oder sie wird wahrscheinlich eine zusätzliche Beschäftigung außerhalb der Synagoge haben.

Autorität [Bearbeiten]

Die praktische Grundlage für rabbinische Autorität beinhaltet die Akzeptanz der rabbinischen Person und ihrer wissenschaftlichen Referenzen. In der Praxis bekennen sich jüdische Gemeinden und Einzelpersonen üblicherweise zur Autorität des von ihnen gewählten Rabbiners. Solch ein rabbinischer Führer wird manchmal der „Meister des Ortes“ (mara d’atra) genannt.[70] Jüdische Personen können die Autorität anderer anerkennen, werden aber rechtliche Entscheidungen der Mara d’atra überlassen.[71]

Der Rabbiner leitet Autorität aus Leistungen innerhalb eines Leistungssystems ab. Die Autorität der Rabbiner ist weder nominell noch spirituell – sie basiert auf Beglaubigungen. Typischerweise erhält der Rabbiner ein institutionelles Gütesiegel. Es ist diese Autorität, die es ihnen ermöglicht, sich am halachischen Prozess zu beteiligen und gesetzliche Vorschriften zu erlassen.[72]

Das gleiche Muster gilt für breitere Gemeinschaften, die von chassidischen Gemeinschaften bis hin zu rabbinischen oder kongregationalen Organisationen reichen: Es wird eine formelle oder de facto-Struktur rabbinischer Autorität geben, die für die Mitglieder der Gemeinschaft verantwortlich ist. Chassidische Gemeinden haben jedoch nicht nur einen Rabbiner: Sie haben einen Rebbe, der eine ähnliche Rolle spielt, dem aber eine besondere Verbindung zu Gott nachgesagt wird. Die Autorität der Rebbes basiert also auf einer spirituellen Verbindung zu Gott und daher werden sie anders verehrt als Rabbiner.

Ehre [Bearbeiten]

According to the Talmud, it is a commandment (mitzvah) to honor a rabbi and a Torah scholar, along with the elderly, as it is written in Leviticus 19:32, “Rise up before the elderly, and honor the aged.”[73] One should stand in their presence and address them with respect.[74] Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference.[75] It is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students.[76] Rabbis and Torah scholars, in order to ensure discipline within the Jewish community, have the authority to place individuals who insult them under a ban of excommunication.[77]

Ordination [ edit ]

Classical ordination [ edit ]

The first recorded examples of ordination are Moses transmitting his authority to Joshua[78] and the 70 elders.[79] Similarly, Elijah transmitted his authority to Elisha.[80]

According to Pirkei Avot, ordination was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly, to the Zugot, to the Tannaim.[81] The chain of semikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century, though possibly as late as the 12th century.

According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classic semikhah or ordination.[82] Since then, a number of modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. So far, no such attempt has been accepted as valid among the consensus of rabbis, or persisted for longer than about a century.

Contemporary ordination [ edit ]

Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed which use much of the same terminology, but have a lesser significance in Jewish law.

Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awarded semikhah (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of a learning program in a yeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary or under the guidance of an individual rabbi. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include study of Talmud, the codes of Jewish law and responsa to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects such as counseling, education, comparative religion and delivering sermons. Most rabbinical students will complete their studies in their mid-20s. There is no hierarchy and no central authority in Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it.

The most common formula used on a certificate of semikhah is Yore yore (“He may teach, he may teach”, sometimes rendered as a question and answer, “May he teach? He may teach.”). Most Rabbis hold this qualification; they are sometimes called a moreh hora’ah (“a teacher of rulings”). A more advanced form of semikhah is yadin yadin (“He may judge, he may judge” or “May he judge? He may judge.”). This enables the recipient to serve as a judge on a rabbinical court and adjudicate cases of monetary law, among other responsibilities. The recipient of this ordination can be formally addressed as a dayan (“judge”) and also retain the title of rabbi. Only a small percentage of rabbis earn the yadin yadin ordination. Although not strictly necessary, many Orthodox rabbis hold that a beth din (court of Jewish law) should be made up of dayanim with this ordination.

Orthodox and Modern Orthodox Judaism [ edit ]

Rabbi Moshe Feinstein , a leading Rabbinical authority for Orthodox Judaism of the second half of the twentieth century.

An Orthodox semikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law and responsa in keeping with longstanding tradition. Here, Orthodox rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevant Talmudic sugyas, and their development in the Rishonim and Acharonim (early and late medieval commentators) and their application in Halakha (Jewish law). Building on this, is the study of those sections of the Shulchan Aruch (codified Jewish law) and its main commentaries that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher, Shabbat, and the laws of family purity). See: Yeshiva § Talmud study and Yeshiva § Jewish law; Semikhah § Concept; Posek § Formulating a ruling (psak din); and List of rabbinical schools § Orthodox.

Orthodox rabbis typically study at yeshivas, which are dedicated religious schools. Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at Yeshiva University, study some elements of modern theology or philosophy, as well as the classical rabbinic works on such subjects (see Yeshiva § Ethics, mysticism and philosophy).

The entrance requirements for an Orthodox yeshiva include a strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g., Hebrew, Aramaic and in some cases Yiddish). Specifically, students are expected to have acquired deep analytic skills, and breadth, in Talmud before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically flow from other yeshiva studies, those who seek semichah are typically not required to have completed a university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University, which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program, and a Masters or equivalent before ordination.

Historically, women could not become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of “Maharat”, and later with titles including “Rabbah” and “Rabbi”. This is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (see Women rabbis and Torah scholars § Orthodox Judaism, Toanot Rabniyot, and Yoetzet Halacha).[3][2]

While some Haredi (including Hasidic) yeshivas (also known as “Talmudical/Rabbinical schools or academies”) do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in learning Torah or Talmud without the goal of becoming rabbis or holding any official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students wishing to obtain the official title of “Rabbi” and to be recognized as such.

Within the Hasidic world, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while a small number of students obtain official ordination to become dayanim (“judges”) on religious courts, poskim (“decisors” of Jewish law), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-Hasidic Litvish yeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmitted rosh yeshivas and the majority of students will not become rabbis, even after many years of post-graduate kollel study.

Some yeshivas, such as Yeshivas Chafetz Chaim and Yeshivas Ner Yisroel in Baltimore, Maryland, may encourage their students to obtain semichah and mostly serve as rabbis who teach in other yeshivas or Hebrew day schools. Other yeshivas, such as Yeshiva Chaim Berlin (Brooklyn, New York) or the Mirrer Yeshiva (in Brooklyn and Jerusalem), do not have an official “semichah/rabbinical program” to train rabbis, but provide semichah on an “as needed” basis if and when one of their senior students is offered a rabbinical position but only with the approval of their rosh yeshivas.

Haredim will often prefer using Hebrew names for rabbinic titles based on older traditions, such as: Rav (denoting “rabbi”), HaRav (“the rabbi”), Moreinu HaRav (“our teacher the rabbi”), Moreinu (“our teacher”), Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav (“our teacher and our rabbi/master the rabbi”), Moreinu VeRabeinu (“our teacher and our rabbi/master”), Rosh yeshiva (“[the] head [of the] yeshiva”), Rosh HaYeshiva (“head [of] the yeshiva”), “Mashgiach” (for Mashgiach ruchani) (“spiritual supervsor/guide”), Mora DeAsra (“teacher/decisor” [of] the/this place”), HaGaon (“the genius”), Rebbe (“[our/my] rabbi”), HaTzadik (“the righteous/saintly”), “ADMOR” (“Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu”) (“our master, our teacher and our rabbi/master”) or often just plain Reb which is a shortened form of rebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies.

Note: A rebbetzin (a Yiddish usage common among Ashkenazim) or a rabbanit (in Hebrew and used among Sephardim) is the official “title” used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi. Rebbetzin may also be used as the equivalent of Reb and is sometimes abbreviated as such as well.

Non-Orthodox Judaism [ edit ]

Conservative Judaism [ edit ]

Conservative Judaism confers semikhah after the completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud and halakhah, Conservative semikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training in Tanakh, classical biblical commentaries, biblical criticism, Midrash, Kabbalah and Hasidut, the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity, Jewish ethics, the halakhic methodology of Conservative responsa, classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care, chaplaincy, non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with rabbinic literature, Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to Conservative halakha, and the completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination. See List of rabbinical schools § Conservative

Reform Judaism [ edit ]

In Reform Judaism rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, academic biblical criticism, in addition to the study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students also are required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study from year one onwards. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openly LGBT people as rabbis and cantors. See List of rabbinical schools § Reform

Seminaries unaffiliated with main denominations [ edit ]

There are several possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by the large Jewish denominations; these are the Academy for Jewish Religion in New York City, AJR in California, Hebrew College in Boston, and Hebrew Seminary in Illinois. The structure and curricula here are largely as at other non-Orthodox yeshivot.

More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called “transdenominational” or “postdenominational”) seminaries. These grant semicha with lesser requirements re time, and with a modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI, RSI, PRS, and Ateret Tzvi. The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate. Rimmon, the most recently established, emphasizes halakhic decision making.

Interdenominational recognition [ edit ]

Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community’s perception of the rabbi’s competence to interpret Jewish law and act as a teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy.

As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Samaritans and Karaites.

The divisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation on whether rabbis from one denomination recognize the legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another.

As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of a particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law.

The Orthodox rabbinical establishment rejects the validity of Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis on the grounds that their movements’ teachings are in violation of traditional Jewish tenets. Some Modern Orthodox rabbis are respectful toward non-Orthodox rabbis and focus on commonalities even as they disagree on interpretation of some areas of Halakha (with Conservative rabbis) or the authority of Halakha (with Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis).

Conservative rabbis accept the legitimacy of Orthodox rabbis, though they are often critical of Orthodox positions. Although they would rarely look to Reform or Reconstructionist rabbis for Halakhic decisions, they accept the legitimacy of these rabbis’ religious leadership.

Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis, on the premise that all the main movements are legitimate expressions of Judaism, will accept the legitimacy of other rabbis’ leadership, though will not accept their views on Jewish law, since Reform and Reconstructionists reject Halakha as binding.

These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha. Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality, under certain circumstances, as a valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism.

Women rabbis [ edit ]

With few rare exceptions, Jewish women have historically been excluded from serving as rabbis. This changed in the 1970s, when due to the shift in American society under the influence of second-wave feminism, the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion began ordaining women as rabbis.[83] Today, Jewish women serve as rabbis within all progressive branches of Judaism, while in Orthodox Judaism, it is a matter of debate, with most communities not accepting women rabbis, while others either ordain women as rabbis or have allowed alternate clerical roles for women (see: Yoetzet Halacha).[3][2]

See also[edit]

Notes [edit]

^ [34] the Rabbinical Council of America for Orthodox rabbis,[35] and the Rabbinical Assembly for Conservative rabbis.[36] These include the Central Council of American Rabbis for Reform rabbis,the Rabbinical Council of America for Orthodox rabbis,and the Rabbinical Assembly for Conservative rabbis.

References[ edit ]

quotes[edit]

Notes [edit]

^ rebbî, (Kaufmann A50 RH 2:12)/רִבִּי ribbî (Parma A RH 2:12) “my master” but this term is extremely rare in ancient texts.[6] Some also connect it to Mishnaic Hebrew רֶבִּי(Kaufmann A50 RH 2:12)/רִבִּי(Parma A RH 2:12) “my master” but this term is extremely rare in ancient texts.

Jewish Religious Views on Interfaith Marriage

Interfaith marriage in Judaism (also called intermarriage or intermarriage) has historically been viewed with very strong disapproval by Jewish leaders and remains a controversial issue among them to this day. In the Talmud and all resulting Jewish laws up to the emergence of new Jewish movements after the Jewish Enlightenment, the “Haskala”, marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is both forbidden and void under Jewish law.[1]

A 2013 survey in the United States by the Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project found that the rate of intermarriage was 58% among all Jews and 71% among non-Orthodox Jews.[2]

Later laws and judgments[ edit ]

The Talmud states that a marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is both forbidden and does not constitute marriage under Jewish law.[1] Furthermore, a Jewish man has no recognized paternal or parental relationship to any offspring resulting from a relationship with a non-Jewish woman.

Christian rulers saw associations between Jews and Christians unfavorably and repeatedly prohibited them under penalty of death.[3][4][5]

Gradually, however, many countries lifted these restrictions, and marriage between Jews and Christians (and Muslims) began. In 1236 Moses of Coucy caused the Jews entrusted with such marriages to dissolve them.[6] In 1807 Napoleon’s Grand Sanhedrin declared that such marriages, while not valid under Jewish law, were valid under civil law and should not be treated as abominations.[7] In 1844 the 1807 ruling was extended by the Brunswick Rabbinical Conference to include all adherents of a monotheistic religion,[7] but they also amended it to prohibit marriages with persons residing in states that prevent the raising of children by marriage would become Jewish.[7] This conference was very controversial; one of its resolutions called on its members to abolish the Kol Nidre prayer, which opens the Yom Kippur service.[8] A member of the Braunschweig conference later changed his mind and became an opponent of intermarriage.[9]

Traditional Judaism does not consider a marriage between a native Jew and a convert to be an intermarriage.[10][11] Thus, all Scriptures that appear to support intermarriage, such as Joseph to Asenath and Ruth to Boaz, were viewed by classical rabbis as occurring after the foreign spouse had converted to Judaism.[12] However, some opinions still considered Canaanites forbidden to marry even after conversion; this was not necessarily true of their children.[13] The Shulchan Aruch and its commentaries[14] offer different opinions as to whether intermarriage is a Torah prohibition and when the prohibition is rabbinic.

A foundling — a person who was abandoned as a child without their parents being identified — was classified as a gentile for intermarriage purposes if found in an area where at least one gentile lived (even if there were hundreds of Jews there). in the area and only one non-Jew);[15] this contrasts sharply with the treatment by other branches of the Jewish religion, where a foundling was classified as Jewish if the majority of the people in the community were Jewish in the area where the Foundling was found.[15] If the mother was known but not the father, the child was treated as a foundling unless the mother claimed that the child was an Israelite (the claim would be decided in case of doubt).[16][17][18]

Marriages between Jews and people of “German blood” were forbidden in Nazi Germany by the Nuremberg Laws.[19]

Modern Settings[ edit ]

The Talmud and later classic sources of Jewish law make it clear that the institution of Jewish marriage, kiddushin, can only be consummated between Jews.

The more liberal American Jewish movements—including Reform, Reconstructionist (organized collectively in the World Union for Progressive Judaism)—do not generally regard the historical corpus and process of Jewish law as intrinsically authoritative. Progressive rabbinical associations have no firm ban on intermarriage; According to a survey of rabbis conducted in 1985, more than 87% of Reconstructivist rabbis were willing to facilitate interfaith marriages,[20] and in 2003 at least 50% of Reformed rabbis were willing to facilitate interfaith marriages.[21] The Central Conference of American Rabbis, the reformed rabbinical body in North America and the largest progressive rabbinic body, consistently opposed intermarriage, including its members officiating through resolutions and responses, at least until the 1980s.[22][ 23][24 ] In 2015, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College voted to admit rabbinical students in interfaith relationships, making Reconstructivist Judaism the first type of Judaism to officially allow rabbis to form relationships with non-Jewish partners.[25]

Humanistic Judaism is a Jewish movement that offers a non-theistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life and defines Judaism as the cultural and historical experience of the Jewish people Society. If the Jewish community is open, welcoming, open and pluralistic, we will encourage more people to identify with the Jewish people, rather than fewer. Intermarriage could contribute to the continuity of the Jewish people.”[26]

The largest reform synagogue in New York, the Central Synagogue, performs “interfaith” marriages. Such marriages are entered into to strengthen Jewish continuity (with the goal of converting the non-Jewish spouse to Judaism).[27] The 2013 Pew Research study “What Happens When Jews Intermarry?” found that children of mixed marriages are much more likely to self-marry and, as people with two Jewish parents, are much more likely to identify themselves religiously as atheists, agnostics, or just “nothing special.” The study also “suggests” that an increasing percentage of children of mixed marriages are Jewish by adulthood. Among Americans age 65 and older who reported having a Jewish parent at the time of the survey, 25% were Jewish. In contrast, 59% of adults under the age of 30 with a Jewish parent were Jewish at the time of the survey. Therefore, “in this sense, intermarriage can transmit Jewish identity to a growing number of Americans”. The survey qualifies that “it is a snapshot in time and shows associations or connections rather than clear causal relationships” and it is not known “whether the large cohort of young adult children from intermarriages who are Jewish today will remain Jewish as they grow older, marry (and in some cases intermarry), raise families and move through the life cycle”.[28]

All branches of Orthodox Judaism follow the historical Jewish attitude towards intermarriage and therefore refuse to accept that intermarriage would have any validity or legitimacy and strictly forbid sexual intercourse with a member of another faith. Orthodox rabbis refuse to celebrate at interfaith marriages, and try not to support them in any other way. Secular intermarriage is viewed as a deliberate rejection of Judaism, and intermarriage is effectively cut off from the bulk of the Orthodox community, although some Chabad-Lubavitch[29] and modern Orthodox Jews [citation needed] reach out to intermarried Jews, particularly Jewish women (because Orthodox Jewish law considers the children of Jewish women to be Jews regardless of the father’s status).

The Conservative movement in Judaism does not condone or recognize the Jewish legal validity of intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the gentile spouse within the family in the hope that such acceptance will lead to the spouse’s conversion to Judaism. The Rabbinical Assembly Standards of Rabbinic Practice prohibit conservative rabbis from officiating in intermarriages and until 2018 officially barred conservative rabbis from participating in intermarriages.[30] In 1995, the Conservative Jewry Executive Council issued the following statement on intermarriage:

In the past, intermarriage…was viewed as an act of rebellion, a rejection of Judaism. Jews intermarried were essentially excommunicated. But now intermarriage is often the result of living in an open society… If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and thereby maintain some level of influence in their lives, Jewish and otherwise. Life is one of constant growth, and our adult children may yet reach a stage where Judaism has a new meaning for them. However, marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is not a celebration for the Jewish community…..[31]

The exact definition of “interfaith” marriage[ edit ]

Different movements in Judaism have different views of who is a Jew and thus what constitutes an interfaith marriage. Unlike Reform Judaism, the Orthodox stream does not accept as a Jew a person whose mother is not Jewish, nor a convert whose conversion was not carried out under classical Jewish law. Conservative Judaism does not accept patrilineal descent. A small minority of conservative rabbis accept reform conversions even without traditional halakhic criteria.

Occasionally a Jew will marry a Gentile who believes in God as understood by Judaism and who rejects Gentile theologies; Jews sometimes call such people Noahides. Steven Greenberg, an Orthodox rabbi, has made the controversial suggestion that in these cases the gentile partner be considered a resident alien – the biblical description of someone who is not Jewish but lives in the Jewish community; According to Jewish tradition, such resident aliens share many of the same responsibilities and privileges as the Jewish community in which they live.

Effects and consequences[edit]

In the early 19th century, exogamy was extremely rare in some less modernized regions of the world – less than 0.1% of Jews in Algeria, for example, practiced exogamy.[32] Even in most Germanic regions of Central Europe[33] only 5% of Jews married non-Jews at the beginning of the 20th century.[34][35][36] In other places, however, the picture was very different; for Berlin it was 18%[37], and in the same period almost half of all Jews in Australia intermarried.[38]

More recently, intermarriage has generally increased; for example, the US National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01 reports that in the United States between 1996 and 2001, almost half (47%) of Jews who married during that period had married non-Jewish partners.[39 ] The The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey reported a 52 percent intermarriage rate among American Jews.[40] The possibility that this could lead to a gradual extinction of Judaism is seen as triggering a crisis by most Jewish leaders, regardless of denomination.[41] For this reason, as early as the mid-19th century, some high-ranking Jewish leaders denounced intermarriage as a threat to the survival of Judaism.[42]

In the United States of America, other causes such as B. the fact that more people are marrying later in life, combined with intermarriage, has led to a dramatic decline in the Jewish community; for every 20 adult Jews there are now only 17 Jewish children. [citation needed] Some religious conservatives are now even metaphorically speaking of intermarriage as a silent holocaust. On the other hand, more tolerant and liberal Jews see interfaith marriage as an enriching contribution to a multicultural society. Regardless of attitudes toward intermarriage, there are now increasing efforts to reach the descendants of intermarriage, with each Jewish denomination focusing on those it defines as Jewish; [citation needed] Secular and non-denominational Jewish organizations have sprung up to bring the offspring of intermarried parents back into the Jewish flock.[43][44]

In some cases, children of a Jewish parent were raised in the religion of the non-Jewish parent while maintaining a sense of Jewish ethnicity and identity.

Christian-Jewish Relations

In Christian-Jewish relations, interfaith marriage and the related phenomenon of Jewish assimilation are a concern of both Jewish and Christian leaders. Most mainstream Christian churches accept and may even encourage the conversion of Jews. However, a number of progressive Christian denominations have publicly stated that they will no longer adhere to this practice. These churches profess two covenant theology.[45][46][47] In addition, Jewish counter-missionary and anti-missionary organizations such as Outreach Judaism encourage Jews to oppose conversion to Christianity, while Messianic Jewish organizations such as Jews for Jesus actively work to encourage it.[48][49]

Resistance to Intermarriage in Israel

Most Israeli Jews reject mixed relationships, particularly those between Jewish women and Muslim men. A 2007 opinion poll found that more than half of Israeli Jews believed intermarriage was tantamount to “treason.” In 2005, Ben-Zion Gopstein, a disciple of ultra-nationalist Meir Kahane, founded the anti-miscegenation organization Lehava.[50] The group’s name is an acronym for “To Prevent Assimilation in the Holy Land.”[51] A group of “Lehava” Jewish men[52] began patrolling the Pisgat Ze’ev neighborhood of Jerusalem to prevent Jewish women from dating Arab men. The Petah Tikva community has also announced an initiative to prevent interfaith relationships by providing a hotline for friends and family to “inform” Jewish girls who are dating Arab men, as well as psychologists to provide them with advice. The city of Kiryat Gat started a school program in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.[53][54] In November 2019, Lehava leader Gopstein was charged with inciting terrorism, violence and racism.[55] Interfaith marriages and dating are extremely rare in Israel, reaching well under 0.5 of the population.

See also[edit]

Metzitzah B’peh (Direct Oral Sucking)

When a baby is circumcised, some ritual Jewish circumcisers (Mohelim) perform a practice called Metzitzah b’peh. Metzitzah b’peh is when the mohel uses his mouth to suck blood from the baby’s circumcision wound as part of the circumcision ritual. After the mezza b’peh, some babies can get an infection.

For printable resources about Metzitzah b’peh and reducing their risks, download:

How Metzitzah B’peh (direct oral sucking) can cause infection

Public health experts have found that Metzitzah b’peh can put babies at risk of contracting a harmful virus called herpes simplex virus type 1, or HSV-1. Some of these babies became seriously ill. Some developed brain damage, others died. There is no proven way to eliminate the risk of HSV-1 infection through direct oral suction, although there are ways to reduce the risk.

Many adults carry HSV-1 in their bodies. They may have no symptoms or only mild symptoms, like cold sores. Unlike adults, babies are too young to fight the virus. If a baby gets the virus, they can suffer brain damage, develop a lifelong disability, or in some cases die.

A baby can get the virus if the mohel’s saliva gets on the baby’s skin and circumcision wound. If a mohel does mezza b’peh, even for a moment, there is no way to avoid that risk. Even if the mohel has no symptoms or obvious signs of HSV-1, such as B. cold sores near the mouth, he could still have the virus and not know it.

Because a baby’s immune system is not yet mature enough to fight infection, HSV-1 poses a serious risk to babies. When infected, babies need to be hospitalized for at least two weeks with intravenous medicine to fight the infection. Even with treatment, the infection could lead to lifelong disability, and babies could even die from the infection.

Alternatives to direct oral suction

Some religious authorities consider direct oral suctioning to be the only acceptable way to remove blood from the circumcision incision. But other religious authorities within the Jewish faith approve of other means. For example, a glass tube or a glass tube attached to a rubber bulb is sometimes used to aspirate blood in a manner that does not involve contact between the mohel’s mouth and the baby’s cut. Others use a sponge or sterile gauze swab to suck blood. Unlike direct oral suctioning, there is no evidence that any of these other practices cause HSV-1 infection.

Reducing the risk

Avoiding Metzza B’peh during circumcision eliminates the risk of herpes transmission during Bris.

If Metzitzah B’peh is still performed despite this guidance, one can reduce—but not eliminate—the risk of HSV-1 infection associated with direct oral suctioning by ensuring that mohelim wash their mouth with alcohol-based mouthwash (especially Listerine Original) Gold, containing 26.9% alcohol) for at least 30 seconds immediately prior to direct oral suction.

To protect the health of New York City’s infants, the Health Commissioner has directed Mohelim who have been found to have infected a baby with HSV-1 through Metzitzah B’peh not to engage in the practice during the circumcision ritual.

Before the bris, talk to the mohel and your doctor

Before hiring a Mohel, ask if they do Metzitzah B’peh. If you don’t want a mezzah b’peh, tell the mohel not to. You have an obligation to respect your wishes.

If you decide to include Metzzah B’peh in your baby’s bris, do the following:

Talk to your baby’s doctor about Metza b’peh.

Before hiring a mohel for the Bris, ask if they have tested positive for herpes or if they have received orders from the health commissioner not to perform a metzizah b’peh. If a mohel answers yes to any of these questions, you should not hire that mohel.

Speak to the mohel to ensure he rinses his mouth with mouthwash (Listerine Original Gold, containing 26.9% alcohol) for at least 30 seconds immediately before performing the Metzitzah B’peh.

Taking care of your baby during and after circumcision

Circumcision involves cutting off the skin and leaving an open wound. To protect the wound from infection, circumcision should always be performed under sterile conditions. The hands of the circumciser should be washed thoroughly and surgical gloves should be worn. The foreskin should be swabbed with an antiseptic solution. Sterile instruments should be used to cut the foreskin. Sterile gauze can be used to absorb bleeding and a sterile dressing should be used to cover the incision site.

Regardless of how the circumcision is performed, it is important to take good care of the circumcision wound until your baby has fully healed. To prevent all forms of infection, parents and other caregivers should apply a fresh gauze pad dabbed with petroleum jelly or other ointment to the penis at each diaper change. It’s also important for parents and other caregivers to wash their hands frequently with soap and water, especially before and after changing diapers or dressing the wound.

For more information about the risk of HSV-1 infection in your baby, contact your family doctor or paediatrician.

Conversion to Judaism website

1. CONSIDERATION ON JUDE MUS

The conversion process begins when a person considers the possibility of becoming a Jew. There are many reasons why people become Jewish. Many are involved in a romantic relationship with a Jew and want to unite the family religiously. Others are on a spiritual quest and are learning about Judaism by reading, listening to a talk, attending a Jewish religious ceremony, and so on. Whatever the motivation, the first step in considering conversion is to research Judaism. This early exploration may include discussing the topic with friends and family, picking out books and videos about Judaism, or just pondering whether conversion is the right choice.

2. FIND A RABBI

After initial considerations, if someone wants to research conversion in more detail, the next step is to find a rabbi. This part of the process can be difficult for several reasons. Obviously, individual rabbis differ. Some devote more time to conversion candidates than others. Some hold on to an old tradition of rejecting a candidate three times to test the candidate’s sincerity. In general, however, rabbis are extremely dedicated people who are both intelligent and religiously sensitive. They are the gatekeepers of Judaism. They decide who may enter Judaism. Given their central importance to a potential convert, it makes sense to visit multiple rabbis and multiple synagogues to look for a suitable match.

When looking for a rabbi, ask friends and family for advice. Contact a local rabbinical council or other Jewish group, or check a local phone book. You can also contact the movements directly. For contact information on the movements, click here.

A second problem is that rabbis belong to different groups or movements. The four main movements are Conservative, Orthodox, Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism. It is important for potential candidates to understand the differences between these movements and to decide which movement is right for them.

When a person sees a rabbi, the rabbi can authoritatively answer questions about conversion. If the person has already decided to convert, the rabbi will likely ask a number of questions about that decision. Such questions could include some of the following:

Why do you want to convert?

What is your religious background?

What do you know about Judaism?

Do you know the differences between Judaism and your religion of birth?

Have you been pressured into making the change?

Are you willing to dedicate the time necessary to study to become a Jew?

Are you willing to raise any children you might have Jewish?

Have you discussed this decision with your family?

Do you have questions about Judaism or conversion?

3. LEARN JUDAISM

A decision was made to study Judaism and a rabbi has agreed to oversee that study. A person may not yet be entirely sure whether a conversion is right, but the early steps of exploration continue. Even those who do not ultimately convert generally find the study of Judaism both interesting and helpful in making a final decision about conversion.

Converts study Judaism in a variety of ways. Some work directly with a rabbi, meeting regularly and completing specific study assignments. Others attend formal inductions into Judaism or conversion courses, often with their Jewish romantic partner. A typical degree program will cover fundamental Jewish beliefs and religious practices such as prayer services, the history of the Jewish people, the Jewish home, the Jewish holidays and life cycle, the Holocaust and Israel, among other subjects. Study of Hebrew is also included.

The length of study varies greatly. In general, the range is from six months to a year, although there are variances. Many non-Jews who are preparing to marry a Jew go through this process early on to marry in a Jewish ceremony. A marriage between someone who was born Jewish and someone who becomes Jewish is a Jewish marriage, not an intermarriage. If this is a crucial subject, plan to start studying well before a wedding.

Usually during this period of study, a rabbi will request that the person begin to practice Judaism according to the movement’s understanding. This can be a rewarding time to explore Judaism. For example, even if a person does not ultimately intend to keep kosher (observing Jewish ritual rules about food), it is valuable to explore the rules for koshering during this period of study.

4. THE RELIGIOUS COURT

The religious court or Bet Din usually consists of three people, at least one of whom must be a rabbi. It often consists of three rabbis. The Bet Din officially oversees the formal conversion. Individual rabbis provide guidance on how the Bet Din works. As it takes place after the study, part of the performance will be to determine the Jewish knowledge of the conversion candidate. For example, there might be a question about the meaning of the Jewish Sabbath or about the Jewish belief in one God. These questions are not intended to trap candidates. Obviously candidates are nervous during such an interview, but in almost all cases the questions are simply intended to assess the candidate’s sincerity and ensure that the conversion was voluntary. An oath of allegiance to the Jewish people is often sworn.

5. CIRCUMCISION

The concrete conversion requirements and their order are to be discussed with a rabbi. A requirement for men wishing to be converted by an Orthodox or Conservative rabbi is circumcision, or Brit Milah. If a circumcision has already been performed, the orthodox and conservative movements require that a drop of blood be taken as a symbolic circumcision. This ceremony is called Hatafat Dam Brit. The reform and reconstruction movements generally do not require circumcision as part of the conversion process.

6. DIP

Orthodox and conservative rabbis require male and female proselytes to immerse themselves in a ritual bath called a mikvah. This ceremony is called Tevillah. Reform and Reconstruction rabbis do not require the use of a mikveh, but some strongly recommend it. The mikveh can be any natural body of water, although the term usually refers to a specific basin built for the purpose of ritual purification. The equipment used varies depending on the mikveh. The immersion ceremony usually begins with cleansing of the body, as through a shower. The person is covered and the cover removed when the person enters the warm water of the mikveh, which is usually about a meter deep. (If the ceremony is in a public place such as a lake, the candidate will wear a loose-fitting garment). Blessings are recited and the person enters the water. Traditional Jewish law requires three male witnesses to be present, although this rule has been reinterpreted to allow Jewish women to be witnesses in some movements. If there are male witnesses and the candidate is female, the witnesses will wait outside the mikveh room and will be informed by a female attendant that the immersion is complete and the blessings have been recited.

7. THE OFFER

In ancient times, proselytes brought sacrifices or offerings to the temple in Jerusalem. After the temple was destroyed, this ceremony disappeared. Jewish law therefore does not require such a sacrifice. However, some rabbis, particularly among the Orthodox, mention it as an opportunity to donate money to the poor or do some other act of charity to make a symbolic sacrifice. This step can be added to the conversion process voluntarily.

8. CHOOSING A NAME

Again, specific conversion processes will vary. A Hebrew name is often chosen after a bet din and the signing of an oath. This is followed by a visit to a mikveh. In any case, at some point you will be prompted to choose a Hebrew name. Some male converts choose the Hebrew name Avraham as their new Hebrew first name and some female candidates choose Sarah or Ruth. Since the use of Hebrew names involves mentioning the Hebrew names of the parents and the convert does not have Jewish parents, it is customary to add “ben Avraham Avinu” or son of Abraham our father. So if a man chooses the Hebrew name Avraham, that man’s full Hebrew name would be Avraham ben Avraham Avinu. For women, the suffix is ​​”Fledermaus Sarah Imenu”, daughter of Sarah, our mother. The naming includes a blessing.

9. THE PUBLIC CEREMONY

A public ceremony to announce conversion is becoming increasingly popular, particularly among Reform Jews. At this ceremony, the convert usually stands before the congregation and gives a speech, usually about the reasons for the conversion or the lessons learned from the conversion experience.

10. A SPECIAL CASE: THE CONVERSION OF MINORS

Minors can be converted. In families with a non-Jewish mother and a Jewish father, the child is considered Jewish in the sense of the reform movement if the child grows up in public identification with Judaism. However, Orthodox and Conservative Judaism do not consider such a child to be legally Jewish. Parents of such children can have their children converted from infancy if they wish, as the process is quite simple. While some would see this as a capitulation to pressure, particularly from the Orthodox, and would resist, others see it as a way of gaining recognition of the child’s Jewish identity by wider sections of the Jewish people. Reform rabbis often simply have a naming ceremony. Orthodox and conservative rabbis require mikveh for a female minor and circumcision and mikveh for a male minor.

Last month, D.C. police charged Barry Freundel, a prominent Modern Orthodox rabbi of the Kesher Israel Congregation in Georgetown, for secretly filming naked women in the mikvah of his synagogue.

What is a mikvah anyway and does it have anything to do with sex? We explain.

What is a mikvah?

A mikvah is a pool of water—partly from a natural spring—that ambitious married Jewish women are required to dip into once a month, seven days after the end of their menstrual cycle. The ocean is a mikveh. A lake can be a mikvah. More often it is indoors and looks like an oversized bathtub. “Mikvah” comes from the Hebrew word for “gathering,” as in an accumulation of water.

For those curious about the law behind the mikvah, Rabbi Alana Suskin points out lusty Leviticus verses (15:19, 15:24, 18:19, and 20:18) dealing with all sorts of, uh, human deal with broadcasts. In ancient times, the Israelites immersed themselves in a mikvah before entering the holy temple of Jerusalem.

So a mikvah is about hygiene?

Immersion in the mikvah takes the woman from a state of impurity (“tumah” in Hebrew) to a state of purity (“taharah”). However, tumah and taharah do not correlate with clean and dirty, said Rivkah Slonim, director of education at the Chabad Center for Jewish Student Life at Binghamton University in New York. “Mikveh is about immersion of the soul,” she said.

Tumah refers to the fact that the woman had a period because she did not get pregnant in the last month; it acknowledges the lack of new life in her. The mikveh restores them to a state of taharah, having the potential to bring new life into the world.

What about the sex part?

Once immersion in the mikveh has taken place, a woman is free to have sex with her husband, which is not permitted when she is in a tumah state. At this point in a woman’s cycle, she is most fertile.

Yes, your calculation is correct. Very observant Jewish couples don’t have sex for half of the month—on the days a woman has her period and for seven days after.

Talking about another woman you saw in the mikveh is a big no-no because it’s the same as saying, “I know who’s going to get something tonight!”

Can you wear a bathing suit in the mikveh?

no The idea of ​​the mikveh is that there is no barrier between the person and the water. Not only does this mean no clothing, but also no jewelry, makeup, nail polish, artificial nails, or beauty products on your hair or skin. In mikvahs run by stricter Jews, an overseer checks that these requirements are met.

Isn’t it too embarrassing for people to undress in the mikveh?

Less traditional mikvahs allow people to immerse themselves. In traditional mikvah, a female attendant allows the woman as much privacy as possible and averts her eyes until the woman is in the water. Then she makes sure that a dip is “kosher,” i. H. that the woman’s body is completely submerged. Your hair cannot float on the surface.

Do men ever go to the mikveh? What about unmarried women?

Observant men sometimes use a mikvah before Shabbat (the Jewish Sabbath) and before Jewish holidays. Mikvahs are also used to make eating and cooking utensils kosher or permitted under Jewish dietary laws. Conversion to Judaism also requires bathing in the mikveh.

In recent decades, the mikvah has had a revival among less-practicing Jews, who see it as a way to mark transitions in their lives. “Open” mikvahs—those that welcome Jews for reasons not prescribed by Jewish law—encourage people, including after a divorce, after chemotherapy, to celebrate a new job, or to find closure after an abortion. Mayyim Hayyim (“Living Waters”) near Boston is considered a pioneer of the movement.

Do non-Jews ever go to the mikveh?

Usually not, although many Christians have pointed out the Jewish roots of Christian baptism.

Freundel reportedly encouraged his non-Jewish students to try the mikveh. Many traditional Jews believe that mikvahs should be reserved for those who need them to keep Jewish law. And they fear that Freundel may have had a sinister motive: staring at naked women.

Can the Mikveh Improve Your Marriage? your sex life?

There’s no proof, but many Jewish couples say obeying laws that dictate they can’t touch until the woman comes out of the mikvah gets them a honeymoon once a month. It takes hard work on many fronts to make a marriage work, but the mikvah can help, Slonim writes: “For two weeks they must hone this almost lost art form: communication. With physical intimacy not an option, they are catapulted into a deep friendship, which in turn can only help fuel the passion they unleash when they sexually embrace again.”

Halachah, (Hebrew: “the way”) is also written Halakha, Halakah or Halachah, plural Halakhahs, Halakhot, Halakhoth or Halachot, in Judaism the entirety of laws and ordinances that have developed since Biblical times to regulate religious customs and the Everyday life and behavior of the Jewish people. Quite unlike the Law or the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible), halacha claims to preserve and represent oral traditions that originated from or evolved from the revelation at Mount Sinai. The legalistic nature of halacha also distinguishes it from those parts of rabbinic or talmudic literature that include history, fables, and ethical teachings (haggadah). That halacha has existed since ancient times is corroborated by non-pentateuchal passages of the Bible where, for example, bondage is mentioned as a legitimate punishment for unpaid debts (2 Kings 4:1).

Oral traditions of Jewish law were passed from generation to generation, and eventually it became clear that they needed organization. Collecting opinions and interpretations was done by Rabbi Akiva in the 1st–2nd centuries. Century AD started and continued by his students like Rabbi Meïr. By the early 3rd century this new compilation, the Mishna, was complete and arranged in its final form by Judah ha-Nasi. Although the Mishnah contained the most comprehensive body of Jewish law up to that point, it was not intended to resolve issues of conflicting interpretation. Almost immediately, however, Jewish scholars in Palestine and Babylonia began to elaborate extensive interpretations of the Mishnah, called Gemara. When the work was completed several centuries later, the Mishnah and Gemara together were called the Talmud.

Centuries later, social and economic changes presented new problems of interpretation and required new legal applications. This led to new compilations of halacha by such eminent scholars as Moses Maimonides in the 12th century, Jacob ben Asher in the 12th and 13th centuries, and Joseph Karo in the 16th century.

Although Judaism recognizes a continuing evolution of halacha, the law is always viewed as an explication or extension of the original law given at Mount Sinai. Conservative rabbis tend to adapt certain halachahs to conditions in the modern world, such as the halachah regarding Sabbath observance. Reform Jews tend to disregard halacha, although some adhere to certain of its ordinances.

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Interpretations and discussions of laws directly related to texts of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) are called Midrash Halacha.

get, also spelled Gett, Hebrew Geṭ (“divorce letter”), plural Gittin, Jewish divorce document written in Aramaic according to a prescribed formula. Orthodox and conservative Jews recognize it as the only valid tool for severing a marriage bond. Rabbinic courts outside of Israel recognize the need to comply with civil laws governing divorce and settlement, and require a civil divorce before a get is issued. Reform Jews disregard Talmudic divorce laws and therefore do not require a get, but simply accept the decision of a civil divorce court as sufficient in itself.

A religious divorce takes effect when the husband, having received a get from a rabbinical court, drops the deed into the cupped hands of his willing wife in the presence of two witnesses and the three members of the court. Court officials are present to ensure that religious law has been properly observed. They then record the divorce and issue documents to the husband and wife.

Although, strictly speaking, Jewish religious law allows a man to divorce his wife at any time and for any reason, women have long been equal with men. Their rights are protected by provisions in the marriage contract (ketubah), and since the 11th century the Ashkenazi (German) rite has not granted divorce without the consent of the woman. In practice, therefore, the only prerequisite for a divorce is the mutual consent of the husband and wife.

In certain special circumstances, such as apostasy, impotence, insanity, or refusal to live together, Jewish law authorizes one party to compel the other to consent to a divorce.

The process of conversion has many “fill in the blanks” moments in my experience. Hatafat Dam Brit, ritual circumcision for those already circumcised, was certainly one of them. My rabbi informed me of the requirement early on, and many months or even years of thought and study came and went before anything was done about it.

i had questions I later found that even if I had asked very specific questions on this particular subject, the authorities in my synagogue would not have known the answers to many of them. Conversions, especially male conversions, were not regular events. No commonly told anecdotes informed the process. Back then, Google was just a glow in the eyes of two college students. No relevant websites like the one you are on offered reassuring information for potential adoptive Jews. So I was on my own with gaps.

Parts of the reform conversion can be very personal, individually tailored. This offers opportunities for adventure. One might visit a mikveh (ritual bath in a flowing pool of water) to take a tour and talk to the people, just to get comfortable, just to know. Or one could alternatively leave it all to the day of conversion just to maximize the moment and spirituality of the very first experience. That’s what I did. I did the same with Hatafat Dam. I could have asked many questions, revealed my fears, found answers somewhere and started the procedure carefree. Instead, I got clueless and drove an hour to a strange address to meet an unknown mohel/rabbi because I didn’t know what. I have to admit that on those lonely miles, questions about pain and procedures arose. For comfort, I drew on my late father’s often uttered “In for a penny, in for a pound” and my own “How bad could it really be?”

So, to put it in a nutshell, what happened? I found the synagogue and went to the rabbi’s office. I remember a short, friendly conversation and then mutual agreement that we should get down to business. Hatafat means “drop” and dam means “blood”. The goal was to get that drop out of the area where the foreskin would have been. That means “the side,” not the top. This is an important distinction. At least one respected rabbi later asked me what that was. The operating room was somewhere around the rabbi’s desk and couch. It appeared to be a nice clean desk. Many books. An alcohol swab, a sterile lancet of the kind used to get a drop of blood from a fingertip, and a quick prick in the side resulted in no pain and ? what shall we call it? ? a small drop of blood? Some call it half a drop. (Advanced readers: would that be a hatafátele?) Some might call for a more determined effort. Some may never be satisfied. “My” new mohel said, “Good enough.” Perhaps there was a blessing. I’m not sure. I was blown away by the boundless relief and the “I think I’m a pretty tough guy” part of the experience. You can get that if you insist on staying clueless beforehand.

The rabbi filled out a nicely formatted charter to grace the family archives and be useful for some unknown future purpose. I don’t recall having to show my documented evidence to my rabbi and cantor, but perhaps cowards or schemers have been known to falsely claim, “Yes, I did it.” Unlikely, but anything is possible. I later drove home and composed for my loved ones an understated story about a novel and meaningful event, with implied undertones of raw courage and steely determination.

Conversion can, and in my case has, brought with it many deeply spiritual and gently beautiful moments. I remember them more clearly than yesterday. I wouldn’t be honest if I said Hatafat Dam Brit was one of them. Not for me. Others may have had very different experiences, but for me it was just something that had to be done for specific reasons. At some point during or shortly after, I reflected on my confirmed covenant with God and greater Israel. The ritual had meaning and purpose in that regard. But it doesn’t rank up there with my sons’ bris (brit milah), their circumcision ceremonies at 8 days old. No joy, no tears and no food.

Since Google is indispensable now, I trawled through this topic to check spelling and the like. I learned that my experience wasn’t and isn’t necessarily standard or typical. For example, one entry discussed the need to hold up the hatafat-coated cotton gauze for inspection by three witnesses. I didn’t have to do this. The prospect of an audience would have pushed me over the edge or forced me to sort out many anxious questions. Who would I invite? Who would like to be invited? strangers or friends? Anonymity or endless jokes at my expense? Are video cameras allowed? What exactly would happen so that I wouldn’t let myself down in front of a crowd? As I said, none of this happened, but it could easily have someone habitually fueling it like me. “You didn’t know? That’s how it’s always done. Someone should have told you.” So if reading this short article takes away some of the adventurous mystery of simply showing up to a Hatafat Dam Brit, I’m sorry. But most importantly, it doesn’t hurt.