How To Tell A Jehovah Witness Happy Birthday? Trust The Answer

1. They are one of Canada’s wealthiest and least transparent charities

The organization of Jehovah’s Witnesses is a registered charity, which means they pay no income tax. They ranked 18th out of the 86,000 registered charities in Canada with donations of over US$80 million in 2016.

Charity Intelligence, an agency that monitors charities for Canadian donors, gives the group a D grade for not reporting how donations are spent.

“Jehovah’s Witnesses have a one star rating out of five. That should be a warning sign to donors. That should be a warning sign for the government.”

2. They don’t believe in military service, national anthems or elections

Jehovah’s Witnesses do not stand for national anthems, salute flags, vote or serve in the military.

Adherents believe their allegiance belongs to God alone, who has actual government in heaven.

3. They don’t celebrate holidays

Jehovah’s Witnesses do not celebrate most holidays or events that honor people who are not Jesus. This includes birthdays, Mother’s Day, Valentine’s Day and Halloween.

Nor do they celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, believing that these customs are of pagan origin.

The organization says “Christmas is not sanctioned by God” because there is no evidence that Jesus was born on December 25 and that the symbols of Christmas, including the lights and tree, have pagan roots.”

4. They don’t accept blood transfusions

Jehovah’s Witnesses cite the Old and New Testaments as the biblical basis for refusing transfusions. They believe that it is God’s will to “abstain from blood” (Genesis 9:4; Leviticus 17:10; Deuteronomy 12:23; Acts 15:28,29).

The organization says: “We avoid drawing blood not only out of obedience to God, but also out of respect for him as a life-giver.”

5. They avoid those who go astray

Those who leave the religion or are kicked out face an extreme form of ostracism. Parents, siblings, friends are instructed to cut all ties.

The organization defends shunning with this scripture: “Remove the wicked from among you.”

6. They limit contact with non-Jehovah’s Witnesses

Followers are discouraged from having close relationships with those who are not part of the faith. People who are “worldly” are seen as a bad influence or “bad company.”

Jehovah’s Witnesses are advised not to join any non-faith groups or teams, and are also discouraged from pursuing higher education.

7. They believe that Satan is real and that he is here on earth

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Satan controls the world. He uses religions, governments, commercial organizations and the media to mislead and corrupt people.

André Gagné, Professor of Theological Studies at Concordia University, says: “Since the governments of this world are not under God’s authority, Jehovah’s Witnesses see no reason to join or submit to the authorities of the world, especially the government, the courts and the police when laws go against their beliefs.”

8. They believe sin requires two witnesses

The two-witness rule, which is the subject of intense international criticism, court cases and a royal commission, is Jehovah’s Witnesses’ interpretation of Scripture that in the absence of a confession there must be two material witnesses of a sin for action to be taken against it .

Critics say the policy protects suspected pedophiles because there are few witnesses to sexual abuse.

The Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses insists they “abhor sexual abuse”, do not protect pedophiles and educate followers about child protection.

9. They believe the end is near. Very close

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Armageddon is imminent. Religion has previously provided a range of dates for the end of the world as we know it, but now tell your followers it will happen any day now.

They point to global conflicts, ISIS, and natural disasters as signs that we are on the verge of the apocalypse.

They believe that Armageddon will be a brutal and bloody battle between God and human government, and evil humanity will ultimately be wiped out. Jehovah’s Witnesses do not believe in Hell.

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This article is about the activities and practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses. For the core beliefs of Jehovah’s Witnesses, see Beliefs of Jehovah’s Witnesses

The practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses are based on the biblical interpretations of Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916), the founder (ca. 1881) of the Bible Students movement, and the successive Presidents of the Watch Tower Society, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (from 1917 to 1942). and Nathan Homer Knorr (from 1942 to 1977). Since 1976, the practices have also been based on decisions taken at closed meetings of the Group’s Board of Directors.[1][2] The group disseminates instructions on activities and acceptable conduct through The Watchtower magazine and other official publications, and at conventions and congregational meetings.

Jehovah’s Witnesses endeavor to remain “separate from the world,”[3] which they view as a place of moral defilement and under Satan’s control. Witnesses refuse to participate in political and military activities and are encouraged to limit social contact with non-Witnesses.[4] The denomination requires adherence to a strict moral code that prohibits premarital sex, homosexuality, gender reversal,[5] adultery, smoking, drunkenness and drug abuse, and blood transfusions.[6] A system of judiciary committees maintains discipline within the congregations, exercising the power to expel members who violate the rules of the denomination and to request their expulsion by other Witnesses.[7] The threat of avoidance also serves to deter members from deviant behavior.[8][9]

Members are expected to regularly engage in evangelism and attend congregational meetings and conventions that present material based on Watch Tower Society publications.[10]

worship [edit]

A Kingdom Hall of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Norway.

Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal.

Worship and study meetings are held in Kingdom Halls and are open to the public. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose “territory” they reside and are expected to attend the weekly meetings scheduled by the Watch Tower Society and the elders of the congregation. The meetings are largely devoted to the study of the Bible and the teachings of the Witnesses.[11] At meetings and other formal occasions, Witnesses refer to one another as “brother” and “sister.”[12] Sociologist Andrew Holden asserts that meetings create an atmosphere of unity for Witnesses, enhance their sense of belonging to a religious community, and enhance the credibility of the organization’s belief system.[11] He says they are also important in helping new converts adopt a different way of life.[11] According to The Watchtower, one role of the frequency and length of meetings is to protect Witnesses from “interfering in the affairs of the world.”[13][14] Witnesses are told that they “should never miss a meeting unless there is a serious reason”.[15][16]

The format and content of the meetings are determined by the New York headquarters of the faith community, with generally the same theme being discussed each week worldwide.[11] Two meetings per week are divided into five different sections, lasting around four hours in total. Meetings open and close with hymns (which they call Kingdom songs) and short prayers recited from the platform. Witnesses are urged to prepare for all meetings by studying the Watch Tower Society literature from which the content is drawn and by searching the scriptures cited in the articles.[17] Kingdom Halls are usually functional in nature and do not contain religious symbols.[11] Each year Witnesses from several congregations forming a “circle” meet in two one-day assemblies; Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day “regional convention,” and every few years the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses holds “international conventions” in select cities around the world. These larger gatherings are usually held in rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the “Lord’s Supper” or “Commemoration of Christ’s Death”.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, conventions and meetings of Jehovah’s Witnesses in many areas have been held virtually using video conferencing software and video presentations.[18]

Weekend meeting[edit]

The weekend meeting, usually held on Sundays, consists of a 30-minute public talk by a congregation elder or ministerial servant[19] and an hour-long question-and-answer study of a Bible article from The Watchtower[11]. ] with questions prepared by the Watch Tower Society and the answers provided in the journal.[20] Members may use their own words to express the ideas in the printed materials[21] although personal ideas derived from independent study are discouraged.[11][22]

Meetings during the week[ edit ]

The weekday meeting, usually held in the evenings, includes a question-and-answer session based on Watch Tower Society publications, [11] [23] Bible reading, sample presentations on how Watch Tower Society literature can help Bible studies and public preaching,[24] and a “congregational Bible study” in a question-and-answer format based on a Watch Tower Society publication.[25]

Family Worship Night[ edit ]

In addition to the two scheduled weekly gatherings, the Watch Tower Society recommends that Witnesses hold a weekly “Family Worship Night” – using the time previously set aside for a third weekly gathering – for family and personal study.[26][ 27][28] There is no specific format for family worship, but the Society encourages members to consider the Watch Tower Society’s publications during this time.[29][30]

Commemorating the Death of Christ[edit]

Jehovah’s Witnesses commemorate Christ’s death as a ransom or “atonement” by celebrating the Lord’s Supper or Memorial.[31] They celebrate it once a year, pointing out that it was instituted on Passover, an annual festival.[32] They celebrate it on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish lunar calendar.[33] Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught that this is the only festival the Bible prescribes for Christians.[34] In the days leading up to the Memorial, Bible readings are assigned from chapters about the days before Jesus died.

Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority throughout the world partake of the unleavened bread and wine. Because Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the majority of believers have an earthly hope. Only those who believe they have a heavenly hope, the “remnant” (those still alive) of the 144,000 “anointed ones” partake of the bread and wine.[31] In 2018, more than 20 million people participated and more than 19,500 members participated.[35]

The memorial service, held after sundown, includes a discourse on the importance of the celebration and the spread of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread among the audience. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the bread symbolizes the body of Jesus Christ which he gave for mankind and that the wine symbolizes his blood redeeming from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation.[31] Since many congregations do not have members claiming to be anointed, it is customary for no one to attend of the bread and wine.

Meetings and congresses[ edit ]

Each year Jehovah’s Witnesses hold two one-day “Circuit Assemblies” held in every circuit worldwide. Each circuit includes several congregations in a geographic area. These take place either in assembly halls owned by Jehovah’s Witnesses or in rented facilities such as public lecture halls. Once a year, Jehovah’s Witnesses gather in larger conventions called “regional conventions,” which usually last three days (Friday through Sunday). These assemblies consist primarily of Bible talks, dramatizations, and videos, including demonstrations and experiences of their preaching work. Conventions also include a baptismal speech followed by the baptism of new members. Every few years, “International Congresses” are held in selected cities with delegates from other countries. Participation in some of these international congresses has exceeded hundreds of thousands; The 1958 International Convention in New York at Yankee Stadium and the Polo Grounds had a peak attendance of over 253,000.

Evangelism[edit]

Finland. Jehovah’s Witnesses travel to Tuuri for field service

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe they have an obligation to God “to bear witness” by engaging in organized and spontaneous evangelism and missionary work.[39][40] Prospective members are told that they have a moral obligation to serve as “publishers” through “regular and zealous” participation in the organized preaching work of the Witnesses and as evangelists of “truth” to spread the teachings of the Watch Tower.[39][ 41] Qualification as a “undeaf publisher” is a prerequisite for baptism,[41] and baptism is considered automatic ordination to the ministry.[42] Watchtower publications describe home visitation as the primary task of Jehovah’s Witnesses[41] in obedience to a “divine commandment” to “preach the good news of the kingdom in all the earth and make disciples of people of every nation.” “.[43] Children commonly accompany their parents and participate in public service.[44] In addition to participating in organized door-to-door sermons, Witnesses are taught that they should look for opportunities to bear witness “informally” by they start conversations with people they meet in everyday activities such as shopping or on public transport, and direct the conversation towards them based on their beliefs.[45]

Witnesses are told that they should put the interests of “God’s kingdom” first in their lives and that other worldly and leisure pursuits should be secondary to spiritual matters.[46][47] Witnesses are often directed by Watch Tower Society publications and at meetings and conventions to increase the quality and quantity of their preaching efforts.[48][49] Publications from the Watch Tower Society indicate that perseverance in public preaching is a prerequisite for Witnesses to gain salvation,[50][51] and that evangelizing absolves them of bloodguilt in relation to persons dying at Armageddon could without having heard of God’s kingdom.[52]

Members who commit to evangelising 840 hours per year (an average of 70 hours per month) are called regular pioneers.[53] Those who commit to evangelising for 50 hours a month are called auxiliary pioneers, which they can do for consecutive months.[54] Some Witnesses volunteer for missionary service and may be invited to receive special training at the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead. On average, these people dedicate more than 120 hours per month to their work.[55] Members who are unable to pioneer are told that they can maintain the “pioneer spirit” by spending as much time as possible preaching and supporting the pioneers’ efforts.[56]

Special “area maps” of residential and commercial areas are prepared within the boundaries of each congregation’s territory and distributed to publishers responsible for preaching in that area. Witnesses are instructed to fill out monthly preaching reports[57] detailing hours expended, publications placed with heads of households, and number of “return visits” to households in which interest had previously been expressed.[39] The reports are used to help measure individuals’ “spirituality”[39][58] and to determine the eligibility of men as congregation elders and ministerial servants.[59] A Witness who does not answer for a month is called an “irregular publisher”; someone who has not turned in a field service report for six consecutive months is called an “inactive publisher.”

Witnesses have historically used a variety of methods to spread their faith, including fact-finding marches in which members carried sandwich boards and handed out leaflets, car radios (car-mounted phonographs), and syndicated newspaper columns and radio spots dedicated to sermons. Between 1924 and 1957 the organization operated a radio station, WBBR, from New York. Since 2011, the Witnesses have been involved in “public witnessing” in metropolitan areas and at county fairs with tables, carts, and literature displays. The Watch Tower Society operates a website, JW.org, which provides access to Watch Tower Society literature and video streaming.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Jehovah’s Witnesses have focused on alternative methods of evangelism such as online web applications, telephone, email, SMS and mail.[60]

Literature of the Watch Tower Society

Jehovah’s Witnesses make extensive use of Watch Tower Society literature, including books, magazines, pamphlets, and handbills, to spread their faith and use as textbooks in their religious meetings. Publications are produced in many languages, with a small selection available in 500 languages. Her magazines The Watchtower and Awake! are published in hundreds of languages ​​and in various electronic formats. The issues of both journals are compiled into bound volumes each year. New books, pamphlets and other articles are published at their annual conventions. Various audiotapes, videocassettes and DVDs have been produced explaining the beliefs, practices, organization and history of the group. Since 1942, all Watchtower literature has been published anonymously.[61] Many Watch Tower Society publications from 1950 onwards are available on the Watchtower Library DVD and online.[62]

Publications were sold to the public until the early 1990s, after which time they were offered free of charge with a request for donations. The policy change was first announced in the United States in February 1990, after Jimmy Swaggart Ministries lost a case in the US Supreme Court over the sales tax exemption issue for religious groups.[63] The Watch Tower Society had joined the case as amicus curiae, or “friend of the court.”[64] The court ruling would have resulted in the Watch Tower Society paying millions of dollars in sales taxes if sales of its literature continued.[65]

Witnesses are urged to prepare for congregation meetings by studying their assigned Watch Tower literature[66] and are expected to read all magazines and books published by the Society.[67][68 ][69] One analysis noted that under the proposed personal study program, Witnesses are expected to read more than 3,000 pages of Society publications each year.[70] Much of the literature is extensively illustrated, with sociologist Andrew Holden observing utopian post-Armageddon images of happy witnesses in bright sunshine and pristine settings, often playing with formerly wild animals like lions and tigers, as opposed to dark images of unfavorable activity such as murders, burglaries, and promiscuity that highlight the moral dangers outside the organization.[71]

Conversion [ edit ]

Individuals who wish to be baptized as Jehovah’s Witnesses must complete a systematic, catechistic Bible study course, usually at home, for several months. They are expected to attend meetings at the Kingdom Hall and must also be willing to do the front-door service.[72] Before baptism, based on questions from the Watch Tower Society, they will have interviews with the elders to determine if they understand and accept the faith of the Witnesses[73] and also that they accept Jesus’ ransom sacrifice and repent of sins and them have made a personal dedication to God.[74] Baptisms are usually conducted in pools at meetings and conventions. At these baptisms, candidates make a “public declaration” of their past dedication to God.[75] The speaker asks the candidates the following two questions.

“Have you repented of your sins, made a dedication to Jehovah, and accepted his way of salvation through Jesus Christ?” “Do you understand that your baptism identifies you as a Jehovah’s Witness in association with Jehovah’s organization?”[76]

After agreeing to both questions, candidates line up to immerse themselves in water, usually in quick succession, often with hundreds of baptized at large assemblies.

Sociologist James A. Beckford reported two significant distinguishing features of the conversion process when mentioned by Jehovah’s Witnesses. He said they typically speak of their conversion experience as a steady progression of states of mind in which witnesses “work out” their conversion “through a methodical confrontation with intellectual obstacles and through a conscious program of self-reform. Conversion is not presented as something that happened to them; it is framed as something they have achieved.” Beckford noted that those he interviewed viewed sudden, emotional upheavals in religious consciousness as suspicious: “Experiences that smack of sudden or idiosyncratic illumination/revelation are not in keeping with the tenor of God’s historical practice nor consistent with the nature of his special covenant with the Watchtower Society.”[77]

He also found a striking contrast to other churches in the shared attribution of responsibility for conversion to “a spiritual leader…the person who acted as the Watchtower’s facilitator and oversaw the initial process of learning and reform.” Beckford cited an interview “representative of many” in which one convert recalled initially resisting the teachings of the Watch Tower Society until he “was persuaded into a serious study of the scriptures… I had many objections and was sure the Witnesses were wrong, but (the Witness conducting the personal Bible study sessions) showed me how the facts of the Bible cannot be faulted.”[77]

Minister and Ordination[ edit ]

Jehovah’s Witnesses consider all followers who have been admitted to formal evangelism to be “preachers.” Witnesses regard their baptism as an ordination; unbaptized publishers are considered “regular ministers,” while baptized publishers are considered “ordained ministers.”[78] Witnesses recognize that many governmental and administrative precedents for clergy are not meant to include all active adherents.[79] For example, only elders claim ecclesiastical and denominational privileges.[80]

Only men may be appointed as elders and ministerial servants (their tenure for deacons), and only baptized men may officiate at weddings, funerals, and baptisms.[81] A minister of Jehovah’s Witnesses may only pray and teach together in unusual circumstances and must wear a head covering. Outside the congregation, according to the Christian complementary view, a minister also wears a head covering when she is conducting spiritual instruction in the presence of her husband. Female headgear is not required in other forms of instruction or when attending congregational meetings conducted by another.[82] According to the Watch Tower Society, some courts in the United States have recognized that full-time Jehovah’s Witnesses, such as “pioneers” and religious congregation members, are entitled to exemptions from office, regardless of gender.[83]

discipline [edit]

Formal discipline is administered by the elders of the congregation. If a baptized member is accused of serious sin, the elders speak to the accused person. If a grave sin is found to have been committed, a tribunal or “judicial committee” (usually composed of three elders) is formed to determine guilt, provide assistance, and possibly impose sanctions.[84]

Disfellowshipping is the harshest form of discipline used. Before taking this step, the judicial committee must determine that the person has committed a “grave sin” and that there is no evidence of true repentance.[85] To assess whether repentance is genuine, members of the Judiciary Committee ask questions and review the accused member’s actions.[86] Baptized members who spread doctrines contrary to the teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses may be disfellowshipped for apostasy,[87][88][89] and a 1981 letter to overseers – reproduced in a book by the former Governing Body member , Raymond Franz – instructed this member who “persists in beliefs in other doctrines” even without promoting such beliefs may also be subject to disfellowshipping.[90] Once the disfellowshipping decision is made, a person has seven days to appeal. If the person has not appealed thereafter, the disfellowshipping is announced to the congregation; the disfellowshipping only becomes effective upon notification to the community.[91] After a person is disfellowshipped, the person is shunned by all baptized members.[92] Exceptions are when a member is compelled to do business with a disfellowshipped member or when the disfellowshipped member lives with baptized family members. In these cases, the Witness is not permitted to discuss religious matters, except in the case of parents conducting a Bible study with a disfellowshipped minor.[93] The extent to which excluded relatives or relatives living in the same household are included in family life is at the discretion of the family.[94] Disfellowshipped family members living outside the home have minimal contact.[95][96]

Correction involves sins that can lead to disfellowshipping. Those deemed “truly remorseful” are more likely to be rebuked than disfellowshipped.[97] Reproof is given “in front of all spectators” based on their interpretation of 1 Timothy 5:20. If the sin is private, the blame would only apply to the person(s) involved. When the sin is known to the whole church or to the church in general, an announcement is made telling the church that the person has been rebuked. Later, without giving names or private details, one of the elders gives a separate talk to ensure the congregation understands sin, its dangers, and how to avoid it.[98] Corrected individuals have some congregation privileges restricted until elders decide that the member has regained “spiritual strength”. [99] [100] Restrictions may include not attending portions of meetings, not commenting on portions of meetings, and not praying for a group. The duration of the restrictions depends on the elders. One cannot be a “pioneer” or “auxiliary pioneer” for at least a year after a correction has been issued.[101]

Marking is practiced when a person’s course of action is viewed as violating biblical principles, which reflects poorly on the congregation but is not a violation of disfellowshipping.[102] The person is urgently advised. If, after repeated counseling sessions, the person still follows the disruptive course, they may be “flagged,” which includes an announcement that the actions at issue are wrong without naming the affected person. Community members limit social contact with that person. The purpose of this is to get the person to correct their actions.[103] “Tagged” people are not completely avoided, but social contacts are minimized.[104]

family life[edit]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband, as the head of his family, is considered the ultimate authority in family decisions. Marriages must be monogamous. Wives should be submissive to their husbands, and husbands should have deep respect and love for their wives and are instructed to listen to them in all matters.[105] Husbands are instructed to treat their wives as Jesus treated his followers.[106] He should not hurt or mistreat his family in any way. The father should work hard to provide the basic necessities for his family. He must also take care of them spiritually. This includes religious education for the family and leading preaching activities. Parental discipline for children should not be done in a harsh, cruel way. Children are instructed to obey their parents.

Married couples are encouraged to speak to local elders if they have problems. Married couples may separate when they experience physical abuse and neglect, or when one partner tries to prevent the other from becoming a Jehovah’s Witness.[107] Remarriage after divorce is only permissible on grounds of adultery based on their understanding of Jesus’ words in Matthew 5:32 and Matthew 19:9.

morale [edit]

Jehovah’s Witnesses demand high moral standards in their ranks.[108] Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Abortion counts as murder.[109] Homosexuality, premarital sex, and sex outside of marriage are considered “grave sins.”[110] Gender reassignment is considered “unnatural” and sex reassignment surgery is considered a form of “mutilation”;[111] if a transgender person “who has already undergone such mutilating surgery” wishes to become a member of the denomination, the person is expected to that she lives according to her biological sex and leaves her spouse if he is biologically of the same sex.[112] Smoking (including electronic cigarettes),[113] drug abuse and intoxication are prohibited, although alcohol is permitted in moderation.[114][115] Modesty in dress and grooming is often emphasized. Entertainment that promotes immoral, “demonic,” or violent themes is considered inappropriate. Members are warned that personal grooming such as beards, long hair or men’s earrings, or other styles of dress or grooming could “tumble” the conscience of others.[116]

Gambling by making money off others’ losses is considered a “form of greed” and is prohibited.[117] Trading in stocks, shares and bonds is considered acceptable.[118]

blood [edit]

Jehovah’s Witnesses officially oppose transfusions of allogeneic blood and some of its fractionated components

Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught that the Bible forbids the consumption, storage and transfusion of blood based on their understanding of scriptures such as Leviticus 17:10, 11: “I will surely set my face against him that eats the blood ‘ and Acts 3:29 p.m.: “Abstain from…blood.” This point of view is also used in emergencies. The Watchtower introduced this view in 1945 and it has evolved since then.[119] Accordingly, the organization has set up Hospital Information Services (HIS) that provide training and facilitation for bloodless surgeries. This service also maintains hospital liaison committees that support supporters facing surgery and provide information to the medical community on bloodless surgical techniques and alternatives to blood.[120]

Although accepted by most members, some within the Jehovah’s Witness community do not support the doctrine.[121]

Der niederländische Anthropologe Richard Singelenberg hat vorgeschlagen, dass das Verbot von Bluttransfusionen der Watch Tower Society – sowie ihr Edikt gegen die Gemeinschaft mit Außenstehenden – in dem religiösen Wunsch verwurzelt sind, einen gemeinschaftlichen Zustand der Reinheit aufrechtzuerhalten, der der göttlichen Gunst würdig ist. Er merkte an: „Regeln der Verschmutzung und Reinheit tragen dazu bei, strukturelle Grenzen um Gruppenmitglieder herum zu schaffen. Und je ausgeprägter sie in göttliche Gebote formuliert sind, desto klarer sind die Trennlinien zwischen den Gläubigen und den Ausgeschlossenen.“[122]

Spirituelle Kriegsführung [Bearbeiten]

Veröffentlichungen der Watch Tower Society lehren, dass Zeugen einen „geistlichen, theokratischen Krieg“ gegen falsche Lehren und böse Geistermächte führen, von denen sie sagen, dass sie versuchen, sie an ihrem Predigtwerk zu hindern.[123] Basierend auf ihrer Auslegung von Epheser 6,10–20 glauben sie, dass ihr „geistlicher Krieg“ mit Wahrheit, Gerechtigkeit, der „guten Botschaft des Friedens“, Glauben, der Hoffnung auf Erlösung, Gottes Wort und Gebet geführt wird.[124][124][] 125] Sie haben den Einsatz einer „theokratischen Kriegsstrategie“ befürwortet, um die Interessen der Sache Gottes zu schützen, was das Verbergen der Wahrheit vor Gottes „Feinden“[126][127] durch Ausweichen oder das Zurückhalten wahrheitsgemäßer oder belastender Informationen vor denen beinhalten würde, die nicht dazu berechtigt sind Gesetz zu wissen.[128][129][130] Der Wachtturm sagte zu Zeugen: „Es ist angebracht, unsere Vorkehrungen für das Werk, das Gott uns befiehlt, zu vertuschen. Wenn die wölfischen Feinde falsche Schlüsse aus unseren Manövern ziehen, um sie zu überlisten, ist ihnen durch die harmlosen Schafe kein Schaden zugefügt worden, unschuldig in ihren Motiven wie Tauben.“[131]

Getrenntheit [ bearbeiten ]

Jehovas Zeugen wird gesagt, dass sie „von der Welt getrennt“ bleiben sollen, in Übereinstimmung mit Jesu Beschreibung seiner Nachfolger in Johannes 17:14–16. Wachtturm-Veröffentlichungen definieren die „Welt“ als „die Masse der Menschheit, abgesehen von Jehovas bewährten Dienern“ und lehren, dass sie von Satan[132] regiert wird und ein Ort der Gefahr[133] und moralischen Verunreinigung[134] ist. Zeugen manifestieren ihren weltverleugnenden Glauben auf vielerlei Weise. Sie vermeiden die Beteiligung an gesellschaftlichen Kontroversen,[135] bleiben politisch neutral und streben kein öffentliches Amt an. Die Watch Tower Society hat erklärt, dass die Stimmabgabe bei politischen Wahlen eine persönliche Gewissensentscheidung ist,[136] obwohl ein Zeuge, der eine Handlung unternimmt, die als „Verletzung der christlichen Neutralität“ angesehen wird, mit religiösen Sanktionen rechnen muss.[137] Sie lehnen die Teilnahme an ökumenischen und interreligiösen Aktivitäten ab,[138][139] verzichten auf das Feiern religiöser Feiertage und lehnen viele Bräuche ab, von denen sie behaupten, dass sie heidnischen Ursprungs sind. Sie arbeiten nicht in Industriezweigen, die mit dem Militär verbunden sind, noch dienen sie in den Streitkräften[140] und verweigern den nationalen Militärdienst, was in einigen Ländern zu ihrer Verhaftung und Inhaftierung führen kann.[141] Sie grüßen nicht oder verpflichten sich nicht zu Nationalflaggen oder singen Nationalhymnen oder andere patriotische Lieder.[142]

Zeugen werden aufgefordert, ihre sozialen Kontakte mit Nichtmitgliedern zu minimieren, selbst wenn sie “anständige Qualitäten” besitzen,[143][144][145] wegen der wahrgenommenen Gefahren des weltlichen Umgangs.[146][147] Der Soziologe Andrew Holden gab an, dass sie sehr wählerisch sind, mit wem sie ihre Freizeit verbringen, und sich im Allgemeinen für die Gesellschaft anderer Zeugen entscheiden. Viele von Holden befragte Zeugen berichteten von Spannungen und Ausgrenzung am Arbeitsplatz aufgrund ihrer religiösen Überzeugungen.[148] Er berichtete, dass viele Bekehrte der Zeugen Jehovas eine gewisse soziale Anpassung benötigten, da sie allmählich den Kontakt zu Freunden, die keine Zeugen waren, reduzierten.[149] Der Umgang mit Personen außerhalb der Organisation, die von Zeugen gemeinhin als „weltlich“ und „nicht in der Wahrheit“ bezeichnet werden, ist nur dann akzeptabel, wenn er als Gelegenheit zum Predigen betrachtet wird[150][151] und Zeugen unter erheblichem Druck der Gesellschaft stehen um Außenstehenden zu zeigen, dass sie Menschen mit hoher Moral sind. Holden behauptet, dass Zeugen, die mit „weltlichen“ Kollegen zusammenarbeiten, dazu neigen, sich eng an die Lehren der Wachtturm-Gesellschaft zu halten.[152]

Der Soziologe Ronald Lawson hat angedeutet, dass es die intellektuelle und organisatorische Isolation der Gruppe ist – gepaart mit der intensiven Indoktrination von Anhängern, starrer interner Disziplin und beträchtlicher Verfolgung – die dazu beigetragen hat, dass ihre apokalyptische Botschaft ein konsistentes Gefühl der Dringlichkeit hat.[153]

Feiern [Bearbeiten]

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed, though they avoid incorporating certain traditions they see to have pagan origins.[154][155] The Watchtower has stated that the use of wedding rings by Witnesses is acceptable, even though wedding rings may have first been used by pagans, based on its conclusion that there is no definite evidence wedding rings were used “as part of false religious practices” (emphasis from original).[156] Witnesses typically observe wedding anniversaries, with the Watch Tower Society noting that wedding anniversaries apparently do not stem from pagan origins.[157]

Other common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Halloween, Easter and Christmas[158] are not celebrated because they believe that these continue to involve “false religious beliefs or activities.”[159][160] Watch Tower Society publications rule out the celebration of Mother’s Day because of a claimed link with pagan gods[161] and concerns that giving “special honor and worship” to mothers is a form of “creature worship” that could turn people away from God.[162] The Society also directs Witnesses to shun May Day, New Year’s Day and Valentine’s Day celebrations because of their pagan origins.[163]

Their opposition to birthdays is said to be based on how the Bible presents them. Watch Tower Society publications note that the only birthday celebrations explicitly mentioned in the Bible are those of an unnamed Pharaoh and Herod Antipas, and that both were associated with executions, and neither celebrant was a servant of God.[164] Though some churches interpret Job 1:4 to indicate birthday feasts of Job’s sons, Jehovah’s Witnesses interpret them as a circuit of feasts from one house to the next.[165] The Bible does not show Jesus or his apostles celebrating birthdays and The Watchtower claims the absence of any record of the date of the birth of Jesus or his apostles indicates that “God does not want us to celebrate any of these birthdays”.[166]

construction [edit]

International and regional building teams frequently undertake constructions of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends, termed “quick-builds”. Larger construction projects, including building regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also performed almost entirely by volunteer members.[citation needed]

Humanitarian efforts [ edit ]

Jehovah’s Witnesses provide relief assistance in disaster-stricken areas for their members and others in the vicinity. Medicine and clothing were provided to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses during the 1994 Rwandan genocide.[167] Following Hurricane Katrina, they helped rebuild houses of Witnesses and others.[168] The Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses uses “Regional Building Committees” to oversee relief efforts worldwide.[169]

Funding of activities [ edit ]

Jehovah’s Witnesses fund their activities, such as publishing, constructing and operating facilities, evangelism, and disaster relief via donations. There is no tithing or collection, but on exceptional occasions, members are reminded to donate to the organization; Witnesses typically provide an opportunity for members of the public to make donations as they encounter them in their preaching work. Donation boxes labeled for several purposes are located in Kingdom Halls and other meeting facilities. Generally there are contribution boxes for local operating expenses, a Kingdom Hall fund for helping Witnesses around the world to build Kingdom Halls, and a general fund for the “Worldwide Work”, which includes the printing of literature, organization of conventions, supporting missionaries and disaster relief, and other operating expenses of the organization.[170][171]

The accounts (including donations) and the financial operation of the local congregation are reviewed monthly and posted on a congregation notice board. Donations are also accepted via mail, and the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society can be named as a beneficiary to an estate, and also accepts donations in the form of life insurance policies, pension plans, bank accounts, certificates of deposit, retirement accounts, stocks and bonds, real estate, annuities and trusts.[172]

References[ edit ]

The same goes for Chelsey and Brock Gietzen and Sean and Kelsey Szukhent.

Ryan, Chelsey and Sean never take a day to worship Jesus.

As Jehovah’s Witnesses, they study the Bible thoroughly and live every day of their lives as the Bible teaches.

Important decisions are made through prayer, and they don’t just read the Bible.

They study it and reflect on its teachings through deep meditation and apply the teachings to their lives.

Jehovah’s Witnesses, an often misunderstood religion, believe in Jesus and God (Jehovah) and follow God’s teachings, but do not celebrate religious holidays or birthdays.

Instead, Jehovah’s Witnesses celebrate milestones such as anniversaries and graduations.

One of the reasons they don’t celebrate Christmas is because December 25 is not the birth date of the historical Jesus.

In fact, according to Jehovah’s Witnesses’ beliefs, Jesus’ birth date cannot be narrowed down to a specific date, but can be counted back from the day of his death when he was 33 1/2 years old, Ryan said.

Sean added that Jesus’ birthday is not in the Bible and therefore Jehovah’s Witnesses do not recognize the date.

Chelsey said that December 25, which has been recognized as Jesus’ birthday, comes from the pagan tradition that the date of birth is near the winter solstice.

Pagans worshiped the sun god and tried to convince Christians to follow their tradition by telling them it was Jesus’ birthday, she said.

One misconception about the religion is that Jehovah’s Witnesses have changed teachings in the Bible, but Suzukhent said the religion translated the words into modern English to make them easier to understand.

Another misconception is that Jehovah’s Witnesses go door to door trying to convert others to the religion.

That’s not true, said Ryan.

They do so in hopes of encouraging others to read and understand the Bible, Ryan said.

“We don’t force anything,” she says. “We share.

“It is a command from Jesus.”

Sean and Ryan, along with their wives, are members of the Kingdom Hall of Jehovah’s Witnesses in Mt. Pleasant.

Chelsey and her husband are members of the Kingdom Hall in Remus.

Being a member of a non-traditional Christian religion is her way of life, and Chelsey knows that sometimes others don’t understand her.

Jesus wasn’t loved by everyone, she said, so it stands to reason that some of his followers would be treated the same way.

Sean said some don’t believe Jehovah’s Witnesses believe in God, but that’s not the case.

They do not believe that the Holy Trinity is a deity and that Jesus is God’s Son and a separate entity.

While believers of other Christian religions celebrate the holiday, Chelsey, Ryan and Sean and their families sometimes take the time to go on vacation.

This year, Christmas was just a typical Sunday.

In general, “Happy Holidays” is considered the broadest and most inclusive greeting at this time of year. If you know someone is celebrating Christmas, you can choose “Merry Christmas,” but it’s time to interact with strangers (sell to them, buy from them, meet them on the way out of Target). You are also likely to express holiday wishes to people you may not know very well, such as a colleague or your child’s teacher. And when it comes time to wish them well, it’s usually best to go for the general.

Why is there a “Happy Holidays” or “Merry Christmas” debate?

In the US, the period from late November to early January is referred to as the “holiday season”. You’ve got your biggies like Thanksgiving, Christmas, Hanukkah, and New Years, and dates that don’t get quite as much attention like Kwanzaa, Winter Solstice, Boxing Day, and Festivus. With so many holidays in just a few weeks, it makes sense to pursue the general holiday wish.

True, there are not too many people celebrating all these holidays. But the point is to recognize that different people celebrate different holidays

Also, this debate isn’t just about words: it’s about being politically correct and embracing different beliefs and traditions across the country.

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your texts always look good? Grammar can save you from making sure your texts always look good? Grammar can save you from spelling mistakes, grammar mistakes, punctuation mistakes and other writing problems on all your favorite websites.

Saying “Happy Holidays” is broader

Although Christmas has been the most celebrated holiday in the United States for decades, the US is more diverse than ever, so not everyone celebrates Christmas. Some people get a Christmas tree but don’t have any traditions associated with Christianity. And many people living in the US have a different religious tradition or no religious tradition at all.

If you say “Merry Christmas” to someone who celebrates Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, or nothing at all, you could make them feel marginalized: as if their own beliefs are not valued or respected by society. And that’s not a good way to feel like you’re on vacation.

How about saying “Happy Holidays” to someone celebrating Christmas – won’t that make them feel bad too? Unfortunately, there is a chance, especially since Christmas is still celebrated so big. But a vacation that’s more popular than the others doesn’t mean you should ignore the others.

Think of it this way: “Happy Holidays” includes Christmas as one of those holidays, and “Merry Christmas” omits anything but Christmas.

If you live in a predominantly Christian area, or if you know someone has a menorah and not a Christmas tree, you can generally feel safe saying “Merry Christmas” or “Happy Hanukkah.” But if you don’t know or aren’t entirely sure, it’s probably best to be general rather than guessing and possibly making someone feel bad.

So “Happy Holidays” or “Merry Christmas”?

A good rule of thumb: if you don’t know what someone is celebrating, use the broader term. As simple as that.

That’s no offense to Christmas. It’s an inclusive way of wishing someone well and showing that you respect and appreciate every tradition they uphold. Actress and comedian Whoopi Goldberg agrees:

“‘Happy Holidays’ allows everyone to be included… When you walk past someone you don’t know what their religious beliefs are or if they have them. If they have religious beliefs and you can’t tell what they are, say “Happy Holidays.”

If Whoopi says that, there must be something to it.

In an already busy time of year, wondering what to wish people can be yet another stress. But don’t forget that despite all the errands, chores, and projects that need to get done by the end of the year, this is also meant to be a season of the year meant to be happy or joyous. You wish someone a positive time of the year. What matters most is the mood, not the specific holiday they are celebrating.

Sure, there are the odd advocate or two who ask for specifics—”What holidays are you referring to?” Still, most people will see your attempt at sharing seasonal cheer and throw you a smile rather than insisting that you’re exactly explain which holiday you have in mind. Even if you’re celebrating one holiday and your interlocutor is celebrating another, by using the inclusive term you’re helping make the holiday really as happy as possible for everyone.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are members of a Christian-influenced religious movement.

The denomination was founded in the USA in the late 19th century under the leadership of Charles Taze Russell. The movement’s headquarters are in New York.

There are approximately 6.9 million active Witnesses in 235 countries around the world (2007), including 1 million in the US and 130,000 in the UK.

Members of the movement are probably best known for their door-to-door evangelical work; witnessing from house to house, offering Bible literature, and recruiting and converting people to the truth.

Although Christian in origin, the group believes that the traditional Christian churches have strayed from the true teachings of the Bible and are not operating in full harmony with God.

For their part, the traditional Christian churches do not view the movement as mainstream Christianity because it rejects the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which they see as irrational and unbiblical.

beliefs

Jehovah’s Witnesses base their faith solely on the text of the Bible, ignoring “pure human speculation or religious creeds.” They believe the Bible to be the word of God and consider its 66 books to be divinely inspired and historically accurate.

Members reject the sinful values ​​of the secular world and maintain a degree of separation from unbelievers – they are “in the world” but not “of the world.”

Witnesses do not celebrate Christmas or Easter because they believe these festivals are based on (or are heavily contaminated by) pagan customs and religions. They point out that Jesus did not ask his followers to celebrate his birthday.

Strongly millennial, the Church believes that mankind is now in the “last days” and that the final battle between good and evil is about to take place.

Based on the Christian Bible, the faith of Jehovah’s Witnesses is known for proselytizing and their expectations that the world is about to end. Then the fulfillment of the kingdom of God will take place and Christ will return to rule. They also believe that meanwhile God requires unquestioning obedience to the teachings of the Bible.

Church members devote time and energy to sharing their ideas with others. They do not vote, participate in politics or join interfaith groups. Regarding death, they believe that the soul is in an unconscious state awaiting resurrection to life. Most believers will be raised to an earthly paradise, but a few will reign with Christ in heaven.

The funeral service of Jehovah’s Witnesses is similar to other Christian denominations, but lasts only 15 or 30 minutes. Burial usually takes place within a week of death. At services, men wear a suit and tie and women are expected to dress modestly, but no head covering is required. Flowers and food can be offered to the family before, during, or after the service.

Services are held in a funeral home or Kingdom Hall, the place of worship for Jehovah’s Witnesses. There may or may not be an open coffin. The congregation elder conducts the service and delivers a talk that can be tape recorded. You should check with the elder about the acceptance of cameras or video equipment, however these are not permitted. Guests who are not of this faith may participate in the service to the extent that they are comfortable. At the tomb, reference is made to the scriptures and a prayer is read.

There is no rule as to when the bereaved can return to work and social activities, but visits from friends after the funeral are welcome.

Toggle caption Library of Congress

Celebrating Fourth of July is as American as burgers and dogs on the grill, soda in plastic cups, apple pie on paper plates, baseball, fireworks and Sousa marches.

Except for those Americans who don’t celebrate it at all.

Like William H. Lamar IV, last year the African-American preacher from Hyattsville, Maryland, wrote an essay that was circulated by the Huffington Post. In it he asked, “How can I celebrate freedom with bondage—economic bondage, educational bondage, political bondage, health bondage, and religious bondage—all around me?”

On July 4, he continued, “I’m going to reflect on America as it was and as it is. And I will reaffirm my allegiance to my ancestors, whose struggle lives on in me.”

The pastor is among a group of Americans who, throughout the country’s history, have chosen to express their independence on Independence Day by not celebrating independence. Waiver of the fourth. Here’s a trio of other examples:

1) Witnesses to history. According to the Tribune Business News, over the weekend of July 4, 2009, more than 11,000 Jehovah’s Witnesses gathered in Tacoma, Washington. “Convention resumes today on Independence Day,” the reporter wrote, “with another packed program of speakers and singing. But don’t expect fireworks or flag waving. Witnesses don’t celebrate the Fourth of July. They regard flags as objects of worship.”

2) Pumpkin Clan Ceremonies. In the early late 19th century, Dennis Zotigh of the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian in Washington observed that the US government was banning Native American tribal dances, festivals, and other ceremonial displays. Native Americans were encouraged to celebrate American holidays instead. In the 20th century, these indigenous festivals slowly returned. Today, “the Kiowa tribe of Oklahoma hold Pumpkin Clan ceremonies on the Fourth of July,” he writes, “because the holiday coincides with their sun dance, which was once held during the hottest time of the year. The Lakota of South Dakota and Cheyenne of Oklahoma continue to hold some of their annual sun dances on the weekends closest to July 4th to coincide with the celebration of their New Year. Some Native Americans celebrate the 4th of July because of the negative consequences for Native Americans throughout history have not, while others simply get together with family and have a barbecue like many non-Native Americans.”

3) Days of Slavery. Slave-born social reformer Frederick Douglass was asked to speak at an Independence Day gathering at Corinthian Hall in Rochester, New York, in 1852 — PBS recalls. is your Fourth of July?” I reply, “a day which, more than any other day of the year, reveals to him the great injustice and cruelty to which he is constantly the victim. To him your celebration is a delusion, your vaunted liberty.” , an unholy licentiousness; your national greatness, swelling vanity; your cheers empty and heartless; your denunciation of tyrants, tinny insolence; your cries of liberty and equality, hollow mockery; your prayers and hymns, your sermons and thanksgiving, with all their religious parade and solemnity, are to Him mere bombast, fraud, deceit, ungodliness and hypocrisy—a thin veil to cover up crimes that would dishonor a nation of savage practices any more shocking and bloo dy than the people of the United States at this hour.” Douglass’ speech informed and influenced future Americans – including William H. Lamar IV.

The Protojournalist: Experimental storytelling for NPR’s LURVers—listeners, users, readers, viewers. @NPRtpj

Jehovah’s Witnesses are a millennia-old Restorative Christian denomination with non-Trinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.[6] The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million followers engaged in evangelism and annual Memorial attendance of over 21 million.[5] Jehovah’s Witnesses are governed by the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a group of elders in Warwick, New York, United States, who establish all doctrine[7] based on their interpretation of the Bible.[9] They believe that the destruction of the current world system at Armageddon is imminent and that the establishment of God’s kingdom over the earth is the only solution to all the problems facing mankind.[10]

The group grew out of the Bible Students movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell, who also co-founded the Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement’s publications.[3] A leadership dispute after Russell’s death caused several groups to break up, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its assets.[11] Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes,[12] including adopting the name Jehovah’s Witnesses[note 1] in 1931 to distinguish them from other Bible Student groups and to symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell’s traditions.[14][ 15][16]

Jehovah’s Witnesses are best known for door-to-door preaching, literature such as The Watchtower and Awake! distribute and refuse military service and blood transfusions. They consider the use of God’s name essential to proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, immortality, and hellfire, which they consider to be unbiblical teachings. They do not celebrate Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays and customs that they consider incompatible with Christianity. They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures,[18] although their literature occasionally cites and cites other Bible translations.[19][20] Adherents commonly refer to their beliefs as “the truth” and consider themselves “in the truth.”[21] They view “human society” as morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.[22][23] The congregation’s disciplinary measures include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion, and shunning, a last resort for what they consider serious crimes.[24][25] Baptized persons who go officially are considered disfellowshipped and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disfellowshipped individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant.[26]

The group’s position on conscientious objection and refusal to salute state symbols (such as national anthems and flags) has brought them into conflict with some governments.[27][28][29][30] As a result, some Jehovah’s Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Ongoing legal challenges by Jehovah’s Witnesses have influenced civil rights legislation in several countries.

The organization has been criticized for Bible translations, teachings and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled prophecies about important biblical events such as the Second Coming of Christ, the coming of God’s Kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling child sexual abuse cases have been the subject of various formal investigations.

story

Background (1870–1916)

In 1870 Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to study the Bible. Throughout his ministry, Russell denied many beliefs of mainstream Christianity, including the immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning of the world. In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; Later that year they co-produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end-time prophecy. The book taught that God’s dealings with mankind were dispensationally divided, each ending in a “harvest,” that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit in 1874 ushering in the “harvest of the Gospel Age,” and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520 year period called “the times of the Gentiles” in which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God’s kingdom on earth.[35][36][37] Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour co-edited the Herald of the Morning religious journal. In June 1879 the two separated over doctrinal differences, and in July Russell began publishing the journal Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence, stating that its purpose was to show that the world was in ” in the last days” and that a new age of earthly and human restoration under the lordship of Christ was at hand.[40]

Beginning in 1879, Watchtower followers gathered as autonomous assemblies to study the Bible thematically. Thirty congregations were organized, and in 1879 and 1880 Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.[41][42][43] In 1881, Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was headed by William Henry Conley, and in 1884 Russell founded the society as a non-profit corporation to distribute tracts and Bibles.[44][45] By 1900 Russell had organized thousands of part-time and full-time colporteurs and was in the process of appointing foreign missionaries and opening branches. By the 1910s, Russell’s organization had nearly a hundred “pilgrims,” ​​or itinerant preachers. Russell was involved in major world publications during his ministry,[47] and by 1912 he was the most widely circulated Christian author in the United States.[49]

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society’s headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship. Volunteers were housed at a nearby residence which he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as “Bible Students” and more formally as the International Bible Students Association.[50] By 1910 about 50,000 people worldwide belonged to the movement[51] and the congregations elected him their “pastor” every year. Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64, returning from a ministerial preaching tour.

Reorganization (1917–1942)

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society’s legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected its next President. His election was controversial, board members accused him of autocratic and secretive actions.[55] The divisions between its supporters and opponents sparked major membership turnover over the next decade. In June 1917 he published The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume in Russell’s Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as Russell’s posthumous work, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation and numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher.[57][58][59] It harshly criticized the Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in World War I. As a result, the directors of the Watch Tower Society were imprisoned under the Espionage Act in 1918 for sedition and members were subjected to mob violence; The directors were released in March 1919 and the charges against them were dropped in 1920.

Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919 he instituted the appointment of a leader in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was placed on house-to-house preaching.[63] Significant doctrinal and administrative changes were periodically introduced during Rutherford’s twenty-five years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ’s millennial earthly kingdom. [65][66] Disappointed with the changes and unfulfilled prophecies, tens of thousands of defectors emerged during the first half of Rutherford’s tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations largely independent of the Watch Tower Society.[68][69] ][70] of which still exist.[71] By mid-1919, one in seven Russell-era Bible Students had broken ties with the Society, and by the late 1920s as many as three-fourths.[69][72][73][74]

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name—Jehovah’s Witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: “’You are my witnesses, says the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know me, and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me no god was made, nor shall there be after me.’” (King James Version, KJV) – which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had broken away from the Society and to symbolize the stimulation of new perspectives and the promotion of fresh methods of evangelization.[14][15][16] In 1932 Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 instituted what he called a “theocratic” (literally, God-governed) system of organization, under which appointments to congregations worldwide were made from headquarters in Brooklyn.

Beginning in 1932, it was taught that the “little flock” of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 “anointed ones” who would be resurrected – or transferred at death – to live in heaven and rule the earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the “great company,” rolled into one restored paradise on earth; from 1935 new converts to the movement were considered part of this class.[75] By the mid-1930s, the beginning of Christ’s presence (Greek: parousía), his accession as king, and the beginning of the “last days” were each pushed back to 1914.

As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, publications by Witnesses decreed that saluting national flags was a form of idolatry, leading to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries.[78 ][78][] 79]

Worldwide membership of Jehovah’s Witnesses reached 113,624 in 5,323 congregations at the time of Rutherford’s death in January 1942.[80][81]

Further development (1942 – today)

Nathan Knorr was appointed third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the complete version of which was published in 1961. He organized large international congregations, established new training programs for members, and expanded missionary work and branches around the world.[82] Knorr’s presidency was also marked by an increased use of explicit directives to guide Witnesses in their lifestyle and behavior, and greater use of congregation court procedures to enforce a strong moral code.[83]

Beginning in 1966, Witness publications and Congressional talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ’s millennial reign could begin in late 1975[85][86][87] or shortly thereafter.[88] The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. In 1975 active membership exceeded two million. Membership declined in the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 proved wrong. The Watch Tower Society literature did not dogmatically state that 1975 would definitely mark the end,[88] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society acknowledged its responsibility to build hope for that year.[94][95]

The offices of elders and ministerial servants were restored in 1972 in the congregations of the Witnesses, with appointments made by headquarters[96] (and later also by the Branch Committees). It was announced that from September 2014 appointments would be made by traveling overseers. A major organizational overhaul in 1976 reduced the power of the President of the Watch Tower Society, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions transferred to the Governing Body.[97] Since Knorr’s death in 1977, the office of Chairman has been held by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both Directors, and since 2000 by others who are not Directors. In 1995, Jehovah’s Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must take place during the life of the generation living in 1914 and changed their teaching on “generation” in 2010.[99][100]

organization

Jehovah’s Witnesses are organized hierarchically[2] in what the leadership calls a “theocratic organization,” reflecting their belief that it is God’s “visible organization” on earth.[101][102] The organization is governed by the Governing Body—an all-male group of varying size, but as of January 2018 has eight members[104] all professing to be of the “anointed” class with hope of heavenly life—based in Headquarters of the Watch Tower Society in Warwick.[105] There is no choice for membership; new members are elected by the existing body. By the end of 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative[108][109] and “spokesman” for God’s “class of faithful and discreet slaves” (then approximately 10,000 professing “anointed” Jehovah’s Witnesses).[111] At the 2012 Watch Tower Society annual meeting, the “faithful and discreet slave” was defined as referring only to the Governing Body.[112] The Governing Body directs several committees responsible for administrative tasks, including publications, congregation programs, and evangelism activities.[113] It appoints all Branch Committee members and traveling overseers, after being recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers to oversee congregation circuits in their jurisdiction. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. The management and support staff live in the properties of the organization known worldwide as “Bethel”, where it operates as a religious community and administrative unit.[115] Your living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a monthly base salary.[116][117][118]

Each congregation has a group of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. The elders retain overall responsibility for leading the congregation, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing public preaching work, and establishing “judicial committees” to hear cases of sexual misconduct or doctrinal violations to investigate and decide on disciplinary action.[119] New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer upon the recommendation of the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a manner similar to elders—fulfill clerical and official duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[113] Witnesses do not use elders as titles to denote a formal clergy-laity division,[120] although elders may exercise ecclesiastical privileges in relation to the confession of sins.[121][122]

Baptism is a requirement to be considered a member of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Jehovah’s Witnesses do not practice infant baptism,[123] and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Persons who are baptized must publicly affirm that dedication and baptism identify them “as a Jehovah’s Witness in association with God’s spirit-directed organization,” although Witness publications say that baptism is personal dedication to God and not “to a man, a work or an organization”. [125][126] Her literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and “his organization,”[128][note 2] and states that individuals must remain part of it in order to gain God’s favor and Surviving Armageddon.[129][130]

publication

The organization produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities.[131] The Watch Tower Society has produced over 227 million copies of all or part of the New World Translation in over 185 languages.[132] 2010 published The Watchtower and Awake! were the most widely circulated periodicals in the world.[133] Translation of Jehovah’s Witness publications is performed by over 2,000 volunteers worldwide who produce literature in 1,000 languages.[134][135] Publications are also available online at the organization’s official website.

financing

Much of their funding is provided by donations, primarily from members. There is no tithing or collection.[94] In 2001, Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York’s forty richest companies with revenues of over $950 million.[131][136] The organization reported for the same year that it “spent over $70.9 million ministering to special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments.”[137] [Note 3]

beliefs

sources of teaching

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe their denomination to be a restoration of first-century Christianity.[138] The teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which takes responsibility for the interpretation and application of the Scriptures.[139][140] The Governing Body does not make a single, comprehensive “statement of faith,” preferring instead to express its teaching position in a variety of ways through Watch Tower Society publications.[141] Her publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation in which God gradually reveals His will and purpose,[142][143][145] and that such enlightenment or “new light”[ 146] resulting in application of reason and study, guidance of the Holy Spirit, and guidance of Jesus Christ and angels.[148] The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the Holy Spirit to discern “deep truths,” which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before making doctrinal decisions.[149] The group’s leadership, which rejects divine inspiration and infallibility,[150] is said to offer “divine guidance”[151] through their teachings, which are described as “based on God’s Word, that is…not of men but of Jehovah.” [152] ][153]

The entire canon of Protestant Scripture is considered the inspired, infallible Word of God. Jehovah’s Witnesses regard the Bible as scientifically and historically accurate and reliable[155] and interpret much of it literally but accept portions of it as symbolic.[156] They regard the Bible as the ultimate authority for all their beliefs,[157] although sociologist Andrew Holden’s ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements by the Governing Body through Watch Tower Society publications carry almost as much weight as the Bible. 158] Regular personal Bible reading is often recommended; Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and “private ideas” arrived at through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.[159][160][161] Adherents are told that they have “complete faith” in the leadership, avoiding skepticism about what is taught in Watch Tower Society literature, and “do not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to this.” understanding of the Bible.”[ 162][163][164][165] The organization provides no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings[166] and all Witnesses must conform to its teachings and organizational requirements hold.[167]

Jehovah

Jehovah’s Witnesses emphasize the use of God’s name and prefer the form Jehovah – a vocalization of God’s name based on the Tetragrammaton.[168][169][170] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things and the “universal sovereign.” They believe that all worship should be directed to him and that he is not part of a trinity; consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ.[172][173] They believe that the Holy Spirit is God’s applied power or “active power” rather than a person.[175]

Jesus

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus is God’s only direct creation, that everything else was created by Christ through God’s power, and that the initial act of unaided creation clearly identifies Jesus as God’s “Only Begotten Son.”[176] Jesus served as Savior and as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind.[177] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright post and not the traditional cross. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a “spirit body” and that he assumed human form only for a temporary period after his resurrection.[179]

Biblical references to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles.[180] Jesus is considered the only intercessor and high priest between God and mankind and was appointed by God to be the king and judge of his kingdom.[181] His role as mediator (referenced at 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the “anointed” class, although the “other sheep” are also said to benefit from the agreement.

Satan

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed a sense of self-importance and a craving for worship. Satan caused Adam and Eve to disobey God, and mankind subsequently became participants in a challenge involving Jehovah’s and Satan’s competing claims to universal sovereignty.[183] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.

Jehovah’s Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were thrown from heaven to earth after October 1, 1914,[184] at which point the end times began. They believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order,[183] ​​that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They also believe that human governments are controlled by Satan,[185] but that he does not control every human ruler directly.[186]

life after death

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence without consciousness. There is no hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the state of death referred to as the common grave.[187] Jehovah’s Witnesses regard the soul as a life or a living body that can die.[188] Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that mankind is in a sinful state[188] from which deliverance is possible only through the shed blood of Jesus as a ransom or atonement for mankind’s sins.

Witnesses believe that a “small flock” of 144,000 chosen people will go to heaven, but that the majority (the “other sheep”) will be resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1-5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule the earth with Jesus as kings and priests. They believe that baptism as Jehovah’s Witnesses is vital to salvation[191] and that only they meet the requirements of Scripture to survive Armageddon, but that God is the final judge.[192][193] During Christ’s millennial reign, most of those who died before Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of eternal life; they are taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium.[194][195]

God’s kingdom

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that God’s kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 “spirit-anointed” Christians who are from earth, which they associate with Jesus’ reference to a “new covenant.”[196] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will fulfill his original purpose for the earth and transform it into a paradise without sickness or death. It is said to have been the center of Jesus’ ministry on earth.[199] They believe that the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914[200] and that Jehovah’s Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.[202]

eschatology

A central teaching of Jehovah’s Witnesses is that the present age or “system of things” entered the “last days” in 1914 and is on the verge of destruction through the intervention of God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who obey God worship acceptable. [203] They consider all other religions today false, identifying them with “Babylon the Great” or the “Harlot” of Revelation 17,[204] and believing that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they will believe in represented in Scripture by the scarlet wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the “great tribulation.”[205][206] Satan will then use world governments to attack Jehovah’s Witnesses, an action that will cause God to begin the War of Armageddon during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ’s “sheep” will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend His heavenly kingdom to earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden. Most of those who died before God’s intervention will gradually be resurrected during the millennial “judgment day.” This judgment will be based on their post-resurrection actions rather than past actions. At the end of the thousand years, Christ will return all authority to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan will be unleashed to mislead perfect humanity. Those who fail will be destroyed along with Satan and his demons. The result will be a fully tested, glorified human race on earth.[208][209]

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began reigning in heaven as King of God’s Kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently cast out of heaven to earth, causing “woe” to mankind. They believe that Jesus reigns invisibly from heaven and is perceived only as a series of “signs.” They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated “coming” when referring to Christ—as “presence.” They believe that Jesus’ presence encompasses an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as King in heaven in 1914 and ending when he comes to bring final judgment upon the people of earth. In doing so, they depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the “Second Coming” in Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge the people.[211]

practices methods exercises

worship

Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal

Kingdom Hall in Kuopio, Finland

Zusammenkünfte zum Gottesdienst und zum Studium finden in Königreichssälen statt, die normalerweise einen funktionalen Charakter haben und keine religiösen Symbole enthalten.[212] Zeugen werden einer Versammlung zugeteilt, in deren „Gebiet“ sie normalerweise wohnen, und nehmen an den wöchentlichen Gottesdiensten teil, die sie als „Zusammenkünfte“ bezeichnen, wie sie von den Ältesten der Versammlung festgelegt werden. Die Zusammenkünfte sind größtenteils dem Studium der Literatur der Watch Tower Society und der Bibel gewidmet. Das Format der Treffen wird vom Hauptsitz der Gruppe festgelegt, und das Thema der meisten Treffen ist weltweit gleich.[212] Die Gemeinden treffen sich jede Woche zu zwei Sitzungen, die vier verschiedene Sitzungen umfassen, die insgesamt etwa dreieinhalb Stunden dauern und sich normalerweise in der Mitte der Woche (zwei Sitzungen) und am Wochenende (zwei Sitzungen) treffen. Vor 2009 trafen sich Gemeinden dreimal pro Woche; Diese Treffen wurden mit der Absicht zusammengefasst, dass die Mitglieder einen Abend der „Familienanbetung“ widmen.[213][214] Versammlungen werden mit Hymnen (die sie Königreichslieder nennen) und kurzen Gebeten eröffnet und geschlossen.[215] Zweimal im Jahr kommen Zeugen aus mehreren Versammlungen, die einen „Kreis“ bilden, zu einem eintägigen Kongress zusammen. Größere Versammlungsgruppen treffen sich einmal im Jahr zu einem dreitägigen “Regionalkongress”, meist in gemieteten Stadien oder Zuschauerräumen.[216] Ihr wichtigstes und feierlichstes Ereignis ist das Gedenken an das „Abendmahl des Herrn“ oder „Denkmal an den Tod Christi“ am Datum des jüdischen Passahfestes.[217]

Evangelisation

Zeugen Jehovas vor dem British Museum, 2017

Jehovas Zeugen sind bekannt für ihre Bemühungen, ihren Glauben zu verbreiten, vor allem indem sie Menschen von Haus zu Haus besuchen[220] und von der Watch Tower Society veröffentlichte Literatur verteilen[221]. Ziel ist es, mit jeder Person, die noch kein Mitglied ist, ein regelmäßiges „Bibelstudium“ zu beginnen,[222] mit der Absicht, dass der Student als Mitglied der Gruppe getauft wird;[223][224] Zeugen wird empfohlen, dies in Erwägung zu ziehen Abbruch des Bibelstudiums mit Studenten, die kein Interesse an einer Mitgliedschaft zeigen.[225][226] Den Zeugen wird beigebracht, dass sie unter einem biblischen Befehl stehen, sich öffentlich zu predigen.[227][228] Sie sind angewiesen, ihrem Dienst so viel Zeit wie möglich zu widmen, und sind verpflichtet, monatlich einen individuellen „Außendienstbericht“ einzureichen.[230] Getaufte Mitglieder, die einen Predigtmonat nicht melden, werden als „irregulär“ bezeichnet und können von Ältesten beraten werden;[231][232] diejenigen, die sechs aufeinanderfolgende Monate lang keine Berichte einreichen, werden als „inaktiv“ bezeichnet.[233]

Ethik und Moral

Alle sexuellen Beziehungen außerhalb der Ehe sind Gründe für die Ausweisung, wenn die Person nicht als reuig angesehen wird;[234][235] homosexuelle Aktivitäten gelten als schwere Sünde, und gleichgeschlechtliche Ehen sind verboten. Abtreibung gilt als Mord.[236] Selbstmord wird als “Selbstmord” und als Sünde gegen Gott angesehen.[237] Modesty in dress and grooming is often emphasized. Glücksspiel, Trunkenheit, illegale Drogen und Tabakkonsum sind verboten. Das Trinken von alkoholischen Getränken ist in Maßen erlaubt.[236]

The family structure is patriarchal. Der Ehemann hat die Autorität bei Familienentscheidungen, wird jedoch ermutigt, die Gedanken und Gefühle seiner Frau sowie die seiner Kinder einzuholen. Ehen müssen monogam und gesetzlich eingetragen sein.[239][240] Es wird dringend davon abgeraten, einen Ungläubigen zu heiraten oder eine solche Verbindung zu unterstützen, und zieht religiöse Sanktionen nach sich.[241][242]

Von Scheidung wird abgeraten, und eine Wiederverheiratung ist verboten, es sei denn, eine Scheidung wird aufgrund von Ehebruch erreicht, was sie als “schriftliche Scheidung” bezeichnen. Wenn aus einem anderen Grund eine Scheidung erwirkt wird, gilt die Wiederverheiratung als Ehebruch, es sei denn, der frühere Ehepartner ist gestorben oder es wird seitdem angenommen, dass er sexuelle Unmoral begangen hat.[244] Extreme körperliche Misshandlungen, vorsätzliche Nichtversorgung der eigenen Familie und das, was die Konfession als “absolute Gefährdung der Spiritualität” bezeichnet, werden als Trennungsgründe akzeptiert.[245][246]

Disziplinarmaßnahmen

Formal discipline is administered by the elders of the congregation. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct[119] or charges of apostasy for disputing Jehovah’s Witness doctrines.[249] A judicial committee is formed to provide spirtual guidance and determine guilt; this can lead to the subject being disfellowshipped.[250] Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant.[251] Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement;[252] formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged.[253] Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that “losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned individual] to come ‘to his senses,’ see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah.”[254] The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.[255] Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned.[256][257][258] Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced.[26] Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.[259] Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.[note 4]

Separateness

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.[260][261][262] They believe that only Jehovah’s Witnesses represent true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed.[263] Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain “separate from the world.” The Witnesses’ literature defines the “world” as “the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants” and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan.[264][265][266] Witnesses are taught that association with “worldly” people presents a “danger” to their faith,[267] and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.[270][271] Attending university is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative.[272][273]

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God’s kingdom,[274] which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.[275][276] Although they do not take part in politics, they respect the authority of the governments under which they live.[277] They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan’s control over the world.[278][279][280] Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.[281]

They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services,[282] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.[283] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.[284] Jehovah’s Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.[285] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the group’s intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.[286]

Rejection of blood transfusions

Jehovah’s Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God’s law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures.[288] Since 1961, the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group.[290][291] Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in “a life-or-death situation”.[292][293] Jehovah’s Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and their literature provides information about non-blood medical procedures.[295]

Though Jehovah’s Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion.[296][297][298] The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted durable power of attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept.[299][300] Jehovah’s Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah’s Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.[301][302]

demographics

Jehovah’s Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country. For 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported approximately 8.7 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about 120,000 congregations.[5] For the same year, they reported over 1.4 billion hours spent in preaching activity, and conducted Bible studies with more than 5.9 million individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children[303][304]). In 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of 0.7%. Over 21.3 million people attended the annual memorial of Christ’s death.[5] According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died from COVID-19.[305]

The official published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry;[306] official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who might attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah’s Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.[307][308] The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify themselves as Jehovah’s Witnesses;[309][310] the next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult Jehovah’s Witnesses in the US are converts.[311]

Sociological analysis

Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah’s Witnesses, classified the group’s organizational structure as Totalizing, characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members’ time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.[312] Beckford identified the group’s chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God’s purpose), absolutism (conviction that Jehovah’s Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).[313]

Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religious groups including Jehovah’s Witnesses, noted that each of the denominations:[314]

“exists in a state of tension with the wider society;” “imposes tests of merit on would-be members;” “exercises stern discipline, regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate, including the possibility of expulsion;” “demands sustained and total commitment from its members, and the subordination, and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests.”

A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah’s Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one’s life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah’s Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having an interest in politics.[315][316] It was also among the most ethnically diverse religious groups in the US.[311]

Opposition

Controversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that “Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah’s Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century.”[317]

Persecution

Political and religious animosity against Jehovah’s Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their stance regarding political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries,[318] including China, Vietnam, and many Muslim-majority countries.[319][320]

Countries where Jehovah’s Witnesses’ activities are banned

Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah’s Witnesses.[333] Harrison, Schnell and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution from the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God.[335][336][337] Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses should “never seek a controversy” nor resist arrest, but also advised members not to co-operate with police officers or courts that ordered them to stop preaching, and to prefer jail rather than pay fines.[338]

Legal challenges

Several cases involving Jehovah’s Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.[340]

In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah’s Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties.[342] Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse.[343] Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada.

Criticism and controversy

Jehovah’s Witnesses have received criticism from mainstream Christianity, members of the medical community, former members and commentators regarding their beliefs and practices. The movement has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, failed predictions, mistranslation of the Bible, harsh treatment of former members and autocratic and coercive leadership. Criticism has also focused on their rejection of blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and failing to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah’s Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

Free speech and thought

Doctrines of Jehovah’s Witnesses are established by the Governing Body.[346] The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;[153][347][348] members who openly disagree with the group’s teachings are expelled and shunned.[249] Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of “God’s organization”.[350][351][352] It also warns members to “avoid independent thinking”, claiming such thinking “was introduced by Satan the Devil”[353][354] and would “cause division”.[355] Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as “apostates” who are “mentally diseased”.[255][357]

Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, and Alan Rogerson describes the group’s leadership as totalitarian. Other critics say that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group’s leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience[159][359] in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.[360][361] Critics also accuse the group’s leaders of exercising “intellectual dominance” over Witnesses,[362] controlling information[249][364] and creating “mental isolation”, which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.

Jehovah’s Witness publications state that consensus of faith aids unity, and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination.[366] Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the denomination as “totalitarian”.[367]

Sociologist Rodney Stark states that Jehovah’s Witness leaders are “not always very democratic” and that members “are expected to conform to rather strict standards,” but adds that “enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group”, and that Jehovah’s Witnesses see themselves as “part of the power structure rather than subject to it.”[92] Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah’s Witnesses have made an informed choice. However, he also states that defectors “are seldom allowed a dignified exit”,[255] and describes the administration as autocratic.

New World Translation

Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger[369] and MacLean Gilmour,[370] have said that while scholarship is evident in New World Translation, its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.[113][371][372][373][374][375] Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss,[376] and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman,[377] Walter Martin, Norman Klann,[378] and Anthony Hoekema state that the New World Translation exhibits scholastic dishonesty. Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.[380][381]

Unfulfilled predictions

Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah’s Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will[382][383] and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God’s kingdom.[384][385][386] Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah’s Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.[note 5] George D. Chryssides stated, “while prediction may be part of a biblical prophet’s role, the root meaning of prophecy is that of proclaiming God’s word.” He went on to say that, “Jehovah’s Witnesses … are the recipients of prophecy, who regard themselves as invested with the interpretation of biblical writings.”[note 6] With these interpretations, Jehovah’s Witnesses’ publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[388] Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines.[390] Some failed predictions had been presented as “beyond doubt” or “approved by God”.[392]

The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet,[393] stating that its interpretations are not inspired or infallible,[394][395][396] and that it has not claimed its predictions were “the words of Jehovah.”[393] Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah’s Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology rather than to failed predictions. Chryssides further states, “it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do.” However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, “Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time.”

Handling of sexual abuse cases

Jehovah’s Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization.[399] The group has been criticized for its “two witness rule” for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing.[400][401][402] In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society’s instruction is that “the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah’s hands”.[403] A former member of the headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, “which is an impossibility”. Anderson says the policies “protect pedophiles rather than protect the children.”[404] Jehovah’s Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.[400][405][406][407]

The group’s failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized.[408] The Watch Tower Society’s policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family.[400][409][410] William Bowen, a former Jehovah’s Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the denomination, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its “crime-free” reputation.[399][411]

In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation.[412][413] The Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing.[404] In 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales began an inquiry into Jehovah’s Witnesses’ handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom.[414][415] The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1,006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse investigated by Jehovah’s Witness elders since 1950, “not one was reported by the church to secular authorities.”[346] The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia.[416][417] In 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation’s redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.[418]

Explanatory notes

references

Witnesses hold a range of traditional Christian views, but also many that are unique to them. They affirm that God—Jehovah—is supreme. Jesus Christ is God’s representative through whom sinful people can be reconciled to God. The Holy Spirit is the name of God’s active power in the world. Witnesses believe they are living in the last days and look forward to the coming establishment of the kingdom of God on earth, led by Christ and administered jointly by 144,000 fellow human beings (Revelation 7:4). Those who acknowledge Jehovah in this life become members of the millennium; those who reject it will not go to hell but face total annihilation. New members are baptized by immersion and are expected to live by a strict code of conduct. Marriage is considered a sacred covenant and divorce is frowned upon except in cases of adultery. Witnesses participate in the annual commemoration of Christ’s death celebrated on Nisan 14 of the Jewish calendar (March or April of the Gregorian calendar); Witnesses pass around bread and wine, symbols of the body and blood of Christ. Only those believed to be among the 144,000 Korulians eat and drink bread and wine.

The teachings of the Witnesses emphasize strict separation from secular government. Although they are generally law-abiding and believe that governments are established by God to maintain peace and order, they refuse to obey certain laws for biblical reasons. They do not salute the flag of any nation, believing it is an act of false worship; they refuse military service; and they do not participate in public elections. These practices have brought them under the control of government agencies. The US government sent Rutherford and other Watchtower leaders to prison during World War I for sedition. In Germany, before World War II, the Nazis sent Witnesses to concentration camps, and Witnesses were also persecuted in Britain, Canada, and the United States. After the war, the Witnesses filed several lawsuits in American courts challenging their beliefs and practices, resulting in 59 Supreme Court rulings that were considered important rulings on freedom of religion. However, they continue to be persecuted in several countries, particularly for their refusal to serve in the military, and they are often publicly ridiculed for their door-to-door evangelism.

The Witnesses’ distrust of contemporary institutions extends to other religious denominations from which they keep separate. They reject concepts such as pastor and church. The leaders of some mainstream Christian churches have denounced the Witnesses for doctrinal deviations (particularly their non-Trinitarian teachings) and denounced them as a “cult.”

Witnesses also reject certain medical practices that they believe are against Scripture. In particular, they refuse blood transfusions, since blood consumption is forbidden in the scriptures (Leviticus 3:17). This belief, which contradicts standard medical practice, remains another point of contention with the authorities, particularly in cases involving children.

In the early years of the movement, members met in rented halls, but under Rutherford the Witnesses began purchasing facilities that they called Kingdom Halls. Members of local congregations, known as “publishers,” meet at Kingdom Halls and preach at your doorstep. “Pioneers” hold secular part-time jobs and devote more time to worship. “Special pioneers” are full-time employees of the association. Each congregation has an assigned territory and each witness has a specific neighborhood to conquer. Great care is taken to keep records of the number of visits, recalls, Bible courses, and books and magazines distributed.

The Watch Tower Society publishes millions of books, tracts, recordings and journals in more than 700 languages. His major publications are a semi-monthly magazine, The Watchtower, and its companion magazine, Awake!. The work is being done by more than eight million Witnesses around the world.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are a millennia-old Restorative Christian denomination with non-Trinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.[6] The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million followers engaged in evangelism and annual Memorial attendance of over 21 million.[5] Jehovah’s Witnesses are governed by the Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses, a group of elders in Warwick, New York, United States, who establish all doctrine[7] based on their interpretation of the Bible.[9] They believe that the destruction of the current world system at Armageddon is imminent and that the establishment of God’s kingdom over the earth is the only solution to all the problems facing mankind.[10]

The group grew out of the Bible Students movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell, who also co-founded the Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement’s publications.[3] A leadership dispute after Russell’s death caused several groups to break up, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its assets.[11] Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes,[12] including adopting the name Jehovah’s Witnesses[note 1] in 1931 to distinguish them from other Bible Student groups and to symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell’s traditions.[14][ 15][16]

Jehovah’s Witnesses are best known for door-to-door preaching, literature such as The Watchtower and Awake! distribute and refuse military service and blood transfusions. They consider the use of God’s name essential to proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, immortality, and hellfire, which they consider to be unbiblical teachings. They do not celebrate Christmas, Easter, birthdays or other holidays and customs that they consider incompatible with Christianity. They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures,[18] although their literature occasionally cites and cites other Bible translations.[19][20] Adherents commonly refer to their beliefs as “the truth” and consider themselves “in the truth.”[21] They view “human society” as morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.[22][23] The congregation’s disciplinary measures include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion, and shunning, a last resort for what they consider serious crimes.[24][25] Baptized persons who go officially are considered disfellowshipped and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disfellowshipped individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant.[26]

The group’s position on conscientious objection and refusal to salute state symbols (such as national anthems and flags) has brought them into conflict with some governments.[27][28][29][30] As a result, some Jehovah’s Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Ongoing legal challenges by Jehovah’s Witnesses have influenced civil rights legislation in several countries.

The organization has been criticized for Bible translations, teachings and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled prophecies about important biblical events such as the Second Coming of Christ, the coming of God’s Kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling child sexual abuse cases have been the subject of various formal investigations.

story

Background (1870–1916)

In 1870 Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to study the Bible. Throughout his ministry, Russell denied many beliefs of mainstream Christianity, including the immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning of the world. In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; Later that year they co-produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end-time prophecy. The book taught that God’s dealings with mankind were dispensationally divided, each ending in a “harvest,” that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit in 1874 ushering in the “harvest of the Gospel Age,” and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520 year period called “the times of the Gentiles” in which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God’s kingdom on earth.[35][36][37] Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour co-edited the Herald of the Morning religious journal. In June 1879 the two separated over doctrinal differences, and in July Russell began publishing the journal Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence, stating that its purpose was to show that the world was in ” in the last days” and that a new age of earthly and human restoration under the lordship of Christ was at hand.[40]

Beginning in 1879, Watchtower followers gathered as autonomous assemblies to study the Bible thematically. Thirty congregations were organized, and in 1879 and 1880 Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.[41][42][43] In 1881, Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was headed by William Henry Conley, and in 1884 Russell founded the society as a non-profit corporation to distribute tracts and Bibles.[44][45] By 1900 Russell had organized thousands of part-time and full-time colporteurs and was in the process of appointing foreign missionaries and opening branches. By the 1910s, Russell’s organization had nearly a hundred “pilgrims,” ​​or itinerant preachers. Russell was involved in major world publications during his ministry,[47] and by 1912 he was the most widely circulated Christian author in the United States.[49]

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society’s headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship. Volunteers were housed at a nearby residence which he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as “Bible Students” and more formally as the International Bible Students Association.[50] By 1910 about 50,000 people worldwide belonged to the movement[51] and the congregations elected him their “pastor” every year. Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64, returning from a ministerial preaching tour.

Reorganization (1917–1942)

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society’s legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected its next President. His election was controversial, board members accused him of autocratic and secretive actions.[55] The divisions between its supporters and opponents sparked major membership turnover over the next decade. In June 1917 he published The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume in Russell’s Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as Russell’s posthumous work, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation and numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher.[57][58][59] It harshly criticized the Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in World War I. As a result, the directors of the Watch Tower Society were imprisoned under the Espionage Act in 1918 for sedition and members were subjected to mob violence; The directors were released in March 1919 and the charges against them were dropped in 1920.

Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919 he instituted the appointment of a leader in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters. At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was placed on house-to-house preaching.[63] Significant doctrinal and administrative changes were periodically introduced during Rutherford’s twenty-five years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ’s millennial earthly kingdom. [65][66] Disappointed with the changes and unfulfilled prophecies, tens of thousands of defectors emerged during the first half of Rutherford’s tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations largely independent of the Watch Tower Society.[68][69] ][70] of which still exist.[71] By mid-1919, one in seven Russell-era Bible Students had broken ties with the Society, and by the late 1920s as many as three-fourths.[69][72][73][74]

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name—Jehovah’s Witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: “’You are my witnesses, says the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know me, and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me no god was made, nor shall there be after me.’” (King James Version, KJV) – which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had broken away from the Society and to symbolize the stimulation of new perspectives and the promotion of fresh methods of evangelization.[14][15][16] In 1932 Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 instituted what he called a “theocratic” (literally, God-governed) system of organization, under which appointments to congregations worldwide were made from headquarters in Brooklyn.

Beginning in 1932, it was taught that the “little flock” of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 “anointed ones” who would be resurrected – or transferred at death – to live in heaven and rule the earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the “great company,” rolled into one restored paradise on earth; from 1935 new converts to the movement were considered part of this class.[75] By the mid-1930s, the beginning of Christ’s presence (Greek: parousía), his accession as king, and the beginning of the “last days” were each pushed back to 1914.

As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, publications by Witnesses decreed that saluting national flags was a form of idolatry, leading to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries.[78 ][78][] 79]

Worldwide membership of Jehovah’s Witnesses reached 113,624 in 5,323 congregations at the time of Rutherford’s death in January 1942.[80][81]

Further development (1942 – today)

Nathan Knorr was appointed third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the complete version of which was published in 1961. He organized large international congregations, established new training programs for members, and expanded missionary work and branches around the world.[82] Knorr’s presidency was also marked by an increased use of explicit directives to guide Witnesses in their lifestyle and behavior, and greater use of congregation court procedures to enforce a strong moral code.[83]

Beginning in 1966, Witness publications and Congressional talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ’s millennial reign could begin in late 1975[85][86][87] or shortly thereafter.[88] The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. In 1975 active membership exceeded two million. Membership declined in the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 proved wrong. The Watch Tower Society literature did not dogmatically state that 1975 would definitely mark the end,[88] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society acknowledged its responsibility to build hope for that year.[94][95]

The offices of elders and ministerial servants were restored in 1972 in the congregations of the Witnesses, with appointments made by headquarters[96] (and later also by the Branch Committees). It was announced that from September 2014 appointments would be made by traveling overseers. A major organizational overhaul in 1976 reduced the power of the President of the Watch Tower Society, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions transferred to the Governing Body.[97] Since Knorr’s death in 1977, the office of Chairman has been held by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both Directors, and since 2000 by others who are not Directors. In 1995, Jehovah’s Witnesses abandoned the idea that Armageddon must take place during the life of the generation living in 1914 and changed their teaching on “generation” in 2010.[99][100]

organization

Jehovah’s Witnesses are organized hierarchically[2] in what the leadership calls a “theocratic organization,” reflecting their belief that it is God’s “visible organization” on earth.[101][102] The organization is governed by the Governing Body—an all-male group of varying size, but as of January 2018 has eight members[104] all professing to be of the “anointed” class with hope of heavenly life—based in Headquarters of the Watch Tower Society in Warwick.[105] There is no choice for membership; new members are elected by the existing body. By the end of 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative[108][109] and “spokesman” for God’s “class of faithful and discreet slaves” (then approximately 10,000 professing “anointed” Jehovah’s Witnesses).[111] At the 2012 Watch Tower Society annual meeting, the “faithful and discreet slave” was defined as referring only to the Governing Body.[112] The Governing Body directs several committees responsible for administrative tasks, including publications, congregation programs, and evangelism activities.[113] It appoints all Branch Committee members and traveling overseers, after being recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers to oversee congregation circuits in their jurisdiction. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. The management and support staff live in the properties of the organization known worldwide as “Bethel”, where it operates as a religious community and administrative unit.[115] Your living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a monthly base salary.[116][117][118]

Each congregation has a group of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. The elders retain overall responsibility for leading the congregation, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing public preaching work, and establishing “judicial committees” to hear cases of sexual misconduct or doctrinal violations to investigate and decide on disciplinary action.[119] New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer upon the recommendation of the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a manner similar to elders—fulfill clerical and official duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[113] Witnesses do not use elders as titles to denote a formal clergy-laity division,[120] although elders may exercise ecclesiastical privileges in relation to the confession of sins.[121][122]

Baptism is a requirement to be considered a member of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Jehovah’s Witnesses do not practice infant baptism,[123] and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Persons who are baptized must publicly affirm that dedication and baptism identify them “as a Jehovah’s Witness in association with God’s spirit-directed organization,” although Witness publications say that baptism is personal dedication to God and not “to a man, a work or an organization”. [125][126] Her literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and “his organization,”[128][note 2] and states that individuals must remain part of it in order to gain God’s favor and Surviving Armageddon.[129][130]

publication

The organization produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities.[131] The Watch Tower Society has produced over 227 million copies of all or part of the New World Translation in over 185 languages.[132] 2010 published The Watchtower and Awake! were the most widely circulated periodicals in the world.[133] Translation of Jehovah’s Witness publications is performed by over 2,000 volunteers worldwide who produce literature in 1,000 languages.[134][135] Publications are also available online at the organization’s official website.

financing

Much of their funding is provided by donations, primarily from members. There is no tithing or collection.[94] In 2001, Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York’s forty richest companies with revenues of over $950 million.[131][136] The organization reported for the same year that it “spent over $70.9 million ministering to special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments.”[137] [Note 3]

beliefs

sources of teaching

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe their denomination to be a restoration of first-century Christianity.[138] The teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which takes responsibility for the interpretation and application of the Scriptures.[139][140] The Governing Body does not make a single, comprehensive “statement of faith,” preferring instead to express its teaching position in a variety of ways through Watch Tower Society publications.[141] Her publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation in which God gradually reveals His will and purpose,[142][143][145] and that such enlightenment or “new light”[ 146] resulting in application of reason and study, guidance of the Holy Spirit, and guidance of Jesus Christ and angels.[148] The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the Holy Spirit to discern “deep truths,” which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before making doctrinal decisions.[149] The group’s leadership, which rejects divine inspiration and infallibility,[150] is said to offer “divine guidance”[151] through their teachings, which are described as “based on God’s Word, that is…not of men but of Jehovah.” [152] ][153]

The entire canon of Protestant Scripture is considered the inspired, infallible Word of God. Jehovah’s Witnesses regard the Bible as scientifically and historically accurate and reliable[155] and interpret much of it literally but accept portions of it as symbolic.[156] They regard the Bible as the ultimate authority for all their beliefs,[157] although sociologist Andrew Holden’s ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements by the Governing Body through Watch Tower Society publications carry almost as much weight as the Bible. 158] Regular personal Bible reading is often recommended; Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and “private ideas” arrived at through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.[159][160][161] Adherents are told that they have “complete faith” in the leadership, avoiding skepticism about what is taught in Watch Tower Society literature, and “do not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to this.” understanding of the Bible.”[ 162][163][164][165] The organization provides no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings[166] and all Witnesses must conform to its teachings and organizational requirements hold.[167]

Jehovah

Jehovah’s Witnesses emphasize the use of God’s name and prefer the form Jehovah – a vocalization of God’s name based on the Tetragrammaton.[168][169][170] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things and the “universal sovereign.” They believe that all worship should be directed to him and that he is not part of a trinity; consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ.[172][173] They believe that the Holy Spirit is God’s applied power or “active power” rather than a person.[175]

Jesus

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus is God’s only direct creation, that everything else was created by Christ through God’s power, and that the initial act of unaided creation clearly identifies Jesus as God’s “Only Begotten Son.”[176] Jesus served as Savior and as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind.[177] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright post and not the traditional cross. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a “spirit body” and that he assumed human form only for a temporary period after his resurrection.[179]

Biblical references to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles.[180] Jesus is considered the only intercessor and high priest between God and mankind and was appointed by God to be the king and judge of his kingdom.[181] His role as mediator (referenced at 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the “anointed” class, although the “other sheep” are also said to benefit from the agreement.

Satan

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed a sense of self-importance and a craving for worship. Satan caused Adam and Eve to disobey God, and mankind subsequently became participants in a challenge involving Jehovah’s and Satan’s competing claims to universal sovereignty.[183] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.

Jehovah’s Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were thrown from heaven to earth after October 1, 1914,[184] at which point the end times began. They believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order,[183] ​​that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They also believe that human governments are controlled by Satan,[185] but that he does not control every human ruler directly.[186]

life after death

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence without consciousness. There is no hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the state of death referred to as the common grave.[187] Jehovah’s Witnesses regard the soul as a life or a living body that can die.[188] Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that mankind is in a sinful state[188] from which deliverance is possible only through the shed blood of Jesus as a ransom or atonement for mankind’s sins.

Witnesses believe that a “small flock” of 144,000 chosen people will go to heaven, but that the majority (the “other sheep”) will be resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1-5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule the earth with Jesus as kings and priests. They believe that baptism as Jehovah’s Witnesses is vital to salvation[191] and that only they meet the requirements of Scripture to survive Armageddon, but that God is the final judge.[192][193] During Christ’s millennial reign, most of those who died before Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of eternal life; they are taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium.[194][195]

God’s kingdom

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that God’s kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 “spirit-anointed” Christians who are from earth, which they associate with Jesus’ reference to a “new covenant.”[196] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will fulfill his original purpose for the earth and transform it into a paradise without sickness or death. It is said to have been the center of Jesus’ ministry on earth.[199] They believe that the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914[200] and that Jehovah’s Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.[202]

eschatology

A central teaching of Jehovah’s Witnesses is that the present age or “system of things” entered the “last days” in 1914 and is on the verge of destruction through the intervention of God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who obey God worship acceptable. [203] They consider all other religions today false, identifying them with “Babylon the Great” or the “Harlot” of Revelation 17,[204] and believing that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they will believe in represented in Scripture by the scarlet wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the “great tribulation.”[205][206] Satan will then use world governments to attack Jehovah’s Witnesses, an action that will cause God to begin the War of Armageddon during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ’s “sheep” will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend His heavenly kingdom to earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden. Most of those who died before God’s intervention will gradually be resurrected during the millennial “judgment day.” This judgment will be based on their post-resurrection actions rather than past actions. At the end of the thousand years, Christ will return all authority to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan will be unleashed to mislead perfect humanity. Those who fail will be destroyed along with Satan and his demons. The result will be a fully tested, glorified human race on earth.[208][209]

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus Christ began reigning in heaven as King of God’s Kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently cast out of heaven to earth, causing “woe” to mankind. They believe that Jesus reigns invisibly from heaven and is perceived only as a series of “signs.” They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated “coming” when referring to Christ—as “presence.” They believe that Jesus’ presence encompasses an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as King in heaven in 1914 and ending when he comes to bring final judgment upon the people of earth. In doing so, they depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the “Second Coming” in Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge the people.[211]

practices methods exercises

worship

Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal

Kingdom Hall in Kuopio, Finland

Meetings for worship and study are held in Kingdom Halls, which are usually functional in nature and contain no religious symbols.[212] Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose “territory” they normally reside and attend what they call “meetings” weekly services, as determined by the elders of the congregation. The meetings are largely devoted to the study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is determined by the group’s headquarters, and the theme of most meetings is the same worldwide.[212] The congregations meet for two sessions each week, comprising four different sessions totaling about three and a half hours, usually meeting mid-week (two sessions) and at weekends (two sessions). Prior to 2009, churches met three times a week; These meetings were summarized with the intent that members devote an evening to “family worship.”[213][214] Meetings open and close with hymns (which they call Kingdom songs) and short prayers.[215] Twice a year, Witnesses from several congregations forming a “circle” meet for a one-day assembly. Larger groups meet once a year for a three-day “regional congress”, mostly in rented stadiums or auditoriums.[216] Its most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the “Lord’s Supper” or “memorial of Christ’s death” on the date of the Jewish Passover.[217]

evangelism

Jehovah’s Witnesses in front of the British Museum, 2017

Jehovah’s Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their faith, primarily through visiting people from house to house[220] and distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society[221]. The goal is to begin regular “Bible study” with each individual who is not already a member,[222] with the intent that the student be baptized as a member of the group;[223][224] Witnesses are encouraged to do so to consider dropping out of Bible study with students who show no interest in membership.[225][226] The Witnesses are taught that they are under a biblical command to preach themselves publicly.[227][228] They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their service and are required to submit an individual “field service report” monthly.[230] Baptized members who do not report a month of ministry are referred to as “irregular” and may be counseled by elders;[231][232] those who do not report for six consecutive months are referred to as “inactive.”[233]

ethics and morals

All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion unless the person is considered repentant;[234][235] homosexual activity is considered a grave sin, and same-sex marriage is forbidden. Abortion counts as murder.[236] Suicide is considered “suicide” and a sin against God.[237] Modesty in dress and grooming is often emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs and tobacco use are prohibited. Drinking alcoholic beverages is allowed in moderation.[236]

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband has authority in family decisions but is encouraged to seek the thoughts and feelings of his wife and children. Marriages must be monogamous and legally registered.[239][240] Marrying a non-believer or supporting such a marriage is strongly discouraged and carries with it religious sanctions.[241][242]

Divorce is discouraged and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on grounds of adultery, which they call a “written divorce”. If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adultery unless the former spouse died or is since presumed to have committed sexual immorality.[244] Extreme physical abuse, willful failure to provide for one’s family, and what the denomination calls “absolute endangerment of spirituality” are accepted reasons for separation.[245][246]

disciplinary action

Formal discipline is administered by the elders of the congregation. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct[119] or charges of apostasy for contesting the teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses.[249] A judicial committee is formed to provide spiritual guidance and determine guilt; this can result in disfellowshipping.[250] Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the most severe form of discipline imposed on a suspected unrepentant offender.[251] Contact with disfellowshipped persons is limited to immediate family members living in the same household and to congregation elders, who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement;[252] formal business relationships may continue if contractually or financially required to do so. [253] Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interactions with disfellowshipped persons protects the congregation from immoral influence and that “loss of precious fellowship with loved ones can help [the shunned person] ‘come to their senses’ the seriousness of their wrongdoing and take steps to return to Jehovah.”[254] The practice of shunning can also serve to discourage other members from deviant behavior.[255] Members who distance themselves (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as evil and also shunned.[256][257][258] Disfellowshipped persons may eventually be reinstated into the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the disfellowshipped congregation.[26] Correction is a lesser form of discipline formally imposed by a judicial committee on a baptized Witness deemed repentant of serious sins; the rebuked person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.[259] Marking, a limitation of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced when a baptized member engages in an act that is considered a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.[note 4]

separateness

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mingling of religions on the basis that there can be only one truth from God and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.[260][261][262] They believe that only Jehovah’s Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other religions do not meet all of God’s requirements and will soon be destroyed.[263] Jehovah’s Witnesses are taught that staying “separated from the world” is vital. Witness literature defines the “world” as “the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants” and teaches that it is morally defiled and ruled by Satan.[264][265][266] Witnesses are taught that associating with “worldly” people is a “danger” to their faith[267] and instructed to minimize social contact with nonmembers in order to better uphold their own moral standards.[270][271 ] University attendance is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative.[272][273]

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to the kingdom of God,[274] which is viewed as actual government in heaven with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, seek no public office, and are discouraged from voting, although individual members may engage in non-controversial issues for the betterment of the community.[275][276] Although they do not participate in politics, they respect the authority of the governments under which they live.[277] They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they commemorate birthdays, national holidays, or any other celebration that they believe honors people other than Jesus. They believe these and many other customs are pagan in origin or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan’s control of the world.[278][279][280] Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children not feel missed out on birthdays or other celebrations.[281]

They do not work in military-related industries, perform military service[282] and refuse national military service, which in some countries can lead to their arrest and imprisonment.[283] They do not salute or commit to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.[284] Jehovah’s Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic allegiances.[285] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group’s intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with intense follower indoctrination, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution, helped ensure that their apocalyptic message had a consistent sense of urgency.[286]

Refusal of blood transfusions

Jehovah’s Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider to be against God’s law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other Scriptures.[288] Since 1961, the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group.[290][291] Members are instructed to refuse blood transfusions, even in “a life-or-death situation.”[292][293] Jehovah’s Witnesses accept bloodless alternatives and other medical procedures in place of blood transfusions, and their literature contains information on bloodless medical procedures.[295]

Although Jehovah’s Witnesses do not accept whole blood blood transfusions, they may, at their discretion, accept some blood plasma fractions.[296][297][298] The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted permanent powers of attorney prohibiting major blood components in which members can specify which allowable factions and treatments they will personally accept.[299][300] Jehovah’s Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a collaborative arrangement between individual Jehovah’s Witnesses and healthcare professionals and hospitals.[301][302]

demographics

Jehovah’s Witnesses are active in most countries, but do not constitute a large part of the population in any country. For the year 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported about 8.7 million publishers—that is, members who actively participate in preaching—in about 120,000 congregations.[5] For the same year they reported over 1.4 billion hours of preaching and conducted Bible studies with more than 5.9 million individuals (including those conducted by parents of Jehovah’s Witnesses with their children[303][304]). In 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported a global annual increase of 0.7%. Over 21.3 million people attended the annual commemoration of Christ’s death.[5] According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died from COVID-19.[305]

Officially published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those filing reports for their personal ministry;[306] official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who may attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who have identified themselves as Jehovah’s Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.[307][308] The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: About 37% of those raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah’s Witnesses;[309][310] were the next lowest retention rate 50% for Buddhism and 68% for Catholicism. The study also found that 65% of adult Jehovah’s Witnesses in the US are converts.[311]

Sociological Analysis

Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah’s Witnesses, classified the group’s organizational structure as totalizing, characterized by assertive leadership, specific and narrow goals, control over competing demands of members’ time and energy, and control over the quality of new members . Other features of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to collaborate with other religious organizations, high membership turnover, low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.[312] Beckford identified the group’s key characteristics as historicism (recognition of historical events relating to the carrying out of God’s purpose), absolutism (belief that Jehovah’s Witness leaders spread absolute truth), activism (ability to motivate members to carry out missionary work), rationalism (belief that Witness teachings have a rational basis without mysteries), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of precepts without opportunity for criticism), and world indifference (rejection of certain worldly requirements and medical treatments).[313]

Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, looking at five religious groups, including Jehovah’s Witnesses, noted that each of the denominations:[314]

“exists in a state of tension with the wider society;” “imposes merit checks on would-be members;” “Exercises strict discipline, regulates the professed beliefs and habits of members, and prescribes and applies sanctions to those who deviate from them, including the possibility of expulsion;” “Demands from its members enduring and total commitment and submission, perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests.”

A comparative sociological study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah’s Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in the statistics for getting no further than high school, belief in God, the importance of religion in one’s life, frequency of religious attendance frequency of prayer frequency of Bible reading outside of worship beliefs that their prayers are answered belief that their religion can only be interpreted in one way belief that their belief is the only true belief that leads to eternal life, rejection of abortion and rejection of homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah’s Witnesses ranked lowest in the statistics for their interest in politics.[315][316] It was also among the most ethnically diverse religious groups in the United States.[311]

opposition

Controversies surrounding various beliefs, teachings and practices of Jehovah’s Witnesses have drawn opposition from governments, communities and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote: “On a world scale, this persecution was so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be wrong to consider Jehovah’s Witnesses to be the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century.”[317]

persecution

Political and religious hostility towards Jehovah’s Witnesses has at times led to mob action and state repression in various countries. Their stance on political neutrality and refusal to perform military service has led to the imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and other periods when national service was compulsory. Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries,[318] including China, Vietnam and many Muslim-majority countries.[319][320]

Countries where the activities of Jehovah’s Witnesses are prohibited

Authors such as William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters, and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson, and William Schnell have claimed that the arrests and mob violence in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s were the result of what appeared to be a premeditated Provocation was authorities and other religious groups of Jehovah’s Witnesses.[333] Harrison, Schnell, and Whalen have suggested that Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for promotional purposes in order to attract dispossessed members of society and to persuade members that outside persecution was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God.[335 ] [336][337] Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed that Witnesses should “never seek controversy” or resist arrest, but also advised members not to cooperate with police officers or courts who ordered them to to stop preaching and go to jail rather than pay fines.[338]

legal challenges

Several cases involving Jehovah’s Witnesses have been tried by high courts around the world. The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.[340]

In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah’s Witnesses led to a series of state and federal court rulings that strengthened judicial protections of civil liberties.[342] Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the Right to engage in public discourse.[343] Similar cases in their favor were tried in Canada.

criticism and controversy

Jehovah’s Witnesses have been criticized for their beliefs and practices by mainstream Christianity, members of the medical community, former members and commentators. The movement has been accused of conflicting doctrines and reversals, failed prophecies, mistranslations of the Bible, harsh treatment of former members, and autocratic and coerced leadership. Criticisms also focused on refusing blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and failure to report cases of sexual abuse to authorities. Many of the claims are disputed by Jehovah’s Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

Free speaking and thinking

The teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses are established by the Governing Body.[346] The denomination does not tolerate disagreements about doctrine and practice;[153][347][348] members who openly disagree with the group’s teachings are expelled and shunned.[249] Publications by Witnesses urge followers not to question the teachings and advice of the Governing Body on the grounds that it should be trusted as part of “God’s organization.”[350][351][352] It also warns members to “avoid independent thinking”, claiming that such thinking “was instituted by Satan the Devil”[353][354] and would “cause division”.[355] Those who openly disagree with the official teachings are condemned as “apostates” who are “mentally ill.”[255][357]

Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the denomination’s cultural paradigms to George Orwell’s 1984, and Alan Rogerson describes the group’s leadership as totalitarian. Other critics say that by denigrating individual decision-making, the leaders of the group are cultivating a system of unquestioning obedience[159][359] in which Witnesses abstain from all responsibilities and rights related to their personal lives.[360][361] Critics also accuse the group’s leaders of exercising “intellectual dominance” over Witnesses,[362] controlling information[249][364] and creating “spiritual isolation” which, according to former Governing Body member Raymond Franz, means everything are elements of mind control.

Jehovah’s Witness publications state that consensus in faith promotes unity and deny that unity limits individuality or imagination.[366] The historian James Irvin Lichti has dismissed the description of the denomination as “totalitarian”.[367]

Sociologist Rodney Stark notes that Jehovah’s Witness leaders are “not always very democratic” and that members are “expected to hold themselves to fairly strict standards,” but adds that “enforcement tends to being very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group’, and that Jehovah’s Witnesses see themselves as ‘part of the power structure and not subject to it’. However, he also notes that defectors “rarely get a dignified exit”[255] and describes the administration as autocratic.

New World Translation

Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger[369] and MacLean Gilmour[370] have said that although the science is evident in the New World Translation, its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of the practices and teachings of the Witnesses is.[113] ][371][372][373][374][375] Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss[376] and Christian writers such as Ray C. Stedman[377] Walter Martin, Norman Klann[378] and Anthony Hoekema explain that the New World Translation exhibits scholastic dishonesty. Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly in relation to the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages relating to the doctrine of the Trinity.[380][381]

Unfulfilled predictions

Publications from the Watch Tower Society have claimed that God used Jehovah’s Witnesses (and formerly the International Bible Students) to explain His will[382][383] and provided foreknowledge of Armageddon and the establishment of God’s Kingdom[384][385 ]. ][386] Some publications also claimed that God used Jehovah’s Witnesses and the International Bible Students as latter-day prophets. [Note 5] George D. Chryssides stated, “While prophecy may be part of the role of a biblical prophet, the fundamental importance of prophecy is the proclamation of the word of God.” He continued, “Jehovah’s witnesses . . . are the recipients of prophecy , who regard themselves as entrusted with the interpretation of biblical writings.” [Note 6] With these interpretations, the publications of Jehovah’s Witnesses have made various predictions about world events which they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[388] ] Failed predictions have led to the change or abandonment of some teachings.[390] Some failed predictions had been presented as “beyond doubt” or “approved by God.”[392]

The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations of being a false prophet[393] and states that their interpretations are not inspired or infallible[394][395][396] and that they have not claimed that their predictions are “the words of Jehovah “. “[393] Chryssides has indicated that, with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of Jehovah’s Witnesses are largely due to a changing understanding of Biblical chronology and not to failed predictions. Chryssides goes on to explain, “It is therefore easy and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end date that fails and then invents a new one, as do many countersectarians.” However, sociologist Andrew Holden notes that since the movement’s inception some 140 years ago, “witnesses have claimed that we live on the brink of the end of time”.

Handling cases of sexual abuse

Jehovah’s Witnesses have been accused of having policies and a culture that help hide instances of sexual abuse within the organization.[399] The group has been criticized for its “two witness rule” for church discipline, based on its application of the scriptures at Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15-17, which requires secondary evidence to support sexual abuse when the accused is Person denies any wrongdoing.[400][401][402] In cases where confirmation is lacking, the Watch Tower Society’s instruction is that “the elders shall place the matter in Jehovah’s hands.”[403] A former headquarters employee, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires there to be another witness to an act of harassment, “which is an impossibility”. Anderson says the policy “protects pedophiles rather than the children.” [404] Jehovah’s Witnesses claim that they have a strict child protection policy, adding that the best way to protect children is by parents to clear up They also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from their parents.[400][405][406][407]

The group’s failure to report allegations of abuse to authorities has also been criticized.[408] The policy of the Watch Tower Society is that elders inform the authorities when required by law, but otherwise leave that action to the victim and his or her family.[400][409][410] William Bowen, a former Jehovah’s Witnesses elder who founded the silentlambs organization to help victims of sexual abuse within the denomination, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in turn to protect its “crime-free” reputation.[399][411]

In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society was found negligent for failing to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation.[412][413] The Society has settled other child molestation claims out of court and has reportedly paid up to $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing.[404] In 2017, the Charity Commission for England and Wales launched an inquiry into the handling of allegations of child sexual abuse by Jehovah’s Witnesses in the UK.[414][415] Australia’s Royal Commission in Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1,006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse investigated by Jehovah’s Witness elders since 1950, “not one has been reported by the church to secular authorities.” [346] The Royal Commission also found that the Legal Department of the Watch Tower Society routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on a misunderstanding of what constituted a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia.[416][417] In 2021, Jehovah’s Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nationwide redress scheme for sexual assault survivors to maintain their charitable status there.[418]

Explanatory note

references