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PAPER – nghĩa trong tiếng Tiếng Việt – từ điển bab.la
A scribe would normally test a newly cut pen to see if it wrote well by writing a few lines of text on a piece of blotting paper. more_vert.
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Date Published: 2/12/2021
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Vietgle Tra từ – Định nghĩa của từ ‘paper’ trong từ điển Lạc Việt
paper. paper (pāʹpər) noun. 1. A material made of cellulose pulp, derived mainly from wood, rags, and certain grasses, processed into flexible sheets or …
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paper – Wiktionary tiếng Việt
to show one’s papers — trình giấy tờ. Báo. daily paper — báo hằng ngày: weekly paper — báo hằng tuần: sporting paper — báo thể dục thể thao.
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Date Published: 3/3/2021
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Wikipedia
Thin material for writing, printing, etc.
Paper is a thin sheet material made by mechanically or chemically processing cellulosic fibers from wood, rags, grasses or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through a fine mesh, leaving the fiber evenly distributed over the surface, followed of pressing and drying. Although paper was originally made by hand in single sheets, almost everything is now made on large machines – some producing rolls as wide as 10 meters, running at 2,000 meters per minute and up to 600,000 tons per year. It is a versatile material with many uses including printing, packaging, decorating, writing, cleaning, filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, preservation paper, laminated countertops, toilet paper, money and security paper and a range of industrial and construction processes.
The papermaking process developed in East Asia, probably China, at least as early as 105 AD[1]. by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological paper fragments date from the 2nd century B.C. in China.[2] The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading production and the United States following.
story
The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate ancestor of modern paper date from the 2nd century BC. in China. The pulp-papermaking process is attributed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch.[2]
It has been said that knowledge of papermaking was transmitted to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas in AD 751, when two Chinese papermakers were taken as prisoners. Although the truth of this story is uncertain, paper production soon began in Samarkand.[3] In the 13th century, knowledge and use of paper spread from the Middle East to medieval Europe, where the first water-powered paper mills were built.[4] Since paper was introduced to the west through the city of Baghdad, it was initially called bagdatikos.[5] In the 19th century, industrialization significantly reduced the cost of papermaking. In 1844, Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and German inventor Friedrich Gottlob Keller independently developed methods for pulping wood fibers.[6]
Early sources of fiber
Before the industrialization of papermaking, recycled fibers from discarded textiles, known as rags, were the most common source of fibers. The rags were made of hemp, linen, and cotton.[7] A process for removing printing ink from waste paper was invented in 1774 by the German lawyer Justus Claproth.[7] Today this process is called deinking. Only with the introduction of pulp in 1843 was papermaking independent of recycled materials from rag pickers.[7]
etymology
The word paper derives etymologically from the Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πᾰ́πῡρος (pápūros), the word for the papyrus plant cyperus.[8][9] Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material made from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, used for writing in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures before the introduction of paper.[10] Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are made very differently and the development of the first differs from the development of the second. Papyrus is a laminate of natural plant fibers, while paper is made from fibers whose properties have been modified by maceration.[2]
papermaking
chemical digestion
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulosic fibers. A cooking liquor is used to dissolve the lignin, which is then washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibers. Paper made from chemical pulp is also known as wood-free paper (not to be confused with tree-free paper); That’s because they don’t contain lignin, which degrades over time. The pulp can also be bleached to make white paper, but this uses up 5% of the fibers. No chemical pulping processes are used to produce paper from cotton, which already consists of 90% cellulose.
The microscopic structure of paper: micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibers in this sample are approximately 10 µm in diameter.
There are three main chemical pulping processes: The sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and was the dominant process before World War II. The force method, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is the most commonly practiced strategy today; One of its benefits is that the chemical reaction with lignin produces heat that can be used to run a generator. Most pulp mills using the Kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run a neighboring paper mill. Another benefit is that with this process, all inorganic chemical reagents are recovered and reused. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silica content.
Mechanical Exploration
There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is shredded and then fed into steam-heated refiners, where the chips are pressed between two steel discs and processed into fibers. In wood pulping, debarked logs are fed into mills where they are pressed against rotating stones and processed into fibers. During mechanical pulping, the lignin is not removed, so the yield is very high, > 95%; However, lignin causes the paper produced in this way to yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have fairly short fibers, producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.
deinked pulp
Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; By mixing it with water and mechanical action, the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and the fibers can be separated again. For reasons of quality, most recycled papers contain a proportion of fresh fibres; In general, deinked pulp is of the same or lower quality than the collected paper from which it was made.
There are three main classifications of recycled fiber:
Mill Scrap or Internal Mill Waste – This includes any substandard or degraded paper made at the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be made into paper again. Such out-of-spec paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine recovered fiber; However, most paper mills have been reusing their own waste fiber for many years, well before recycling became popular.
Pre-Consumer Waste – This is offcuts and processing waste such as B. Guillotine cuts and envelopes It is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially end up in landfills and is a real source of recycled fibre; this includes deinking pre-consumer waste (recycled material that has been printed but has not reached its intended use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications). [11]
Post-Consumer Waste – This is fiber from paper that has been used for its intended end use and includes office waste, magazine paper and newsprint. Because the vast majority of this material has been printed – either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or rotogravure – it is either recycled as printed paper or subjected to a deinking process first.
Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong and lustrous as papers made from the latter.
additives
In addition to the fibers, pulps can contain fillers such as chalk or kaolin[12] that improve their printing or writing properties.[13] Additives for sizing purposes can be added to it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; The purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorption for ink or paint.
make paper
The pulp is fed into a paper machine where it is formed into a paper web and dewatered by pressing and drying.
Pressing the plate forcefully removes the water. Once the water is pushed out of the plate, a special felt, not to be confused with the traditional felt, is used to catch the water. In manual papermaking, a blotter is used instead.
Drying uses air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In the early days of papermaking, sheets were hung up like laundry; Recently, various forms of heated drying mechanisms have been used. The steam-heated can dryer is the most common on the paper machine. These can reach temperatures in excess of 93 °C (200 °F) and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat they generate can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture.
completion
The paper can then be sized to change its physical properties for use in various applications.
Paper is uncoated at this point. Coated paper has a thin layer of material, such as calcium carbonate or kaolin, coated on one or both sides to create a surface more amenable to high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens over 150 lpi.) The surfaces of coated or uncoated papers can be polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matt, semi-matt or semi-matt and glossy. Glossy papers result in the highest optical density in the printed image.
The paper is then supplied in rolls if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibers in paper generally run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut “long grain”, i. H. with the grain parallel to the long side of the sheet. Continuous paper (or continuous paper) is cut to width, punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.
paper grain
All papers made by paper machines such as the Fourdrinier machine are woven papers, meaning the wire mesh that carries the web leaves a pattern that is the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured surfaces, watermarks and wire patterns imitating handmade paper can be created through the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.
Woven paper does not exhibit “laidlines,” which are small regular lines left on the paper when it is handcrafted into a mold made from rows of metal wire or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the “chain lines” that are further apart. Deckled paper also exhibits “deckle edges,” or rough and feathery edges.[14]
applications
Paper money from different countries
Depending on the intended use, paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties.
Published, written or informative articles
packaging and industrial applications
It is estimated that paper-based storage accounted for 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though the global capacity for storing information on paper has increased in absolute terms from 8.7 to 19.4 petabytes.[15] It is estimated that in 1986, paper-based mail accounted for less than 0.05% of the world’s telecommunications capacity, with a sharp decline after the massive introduction of digital technologies.[15]
Paper plays a major role in the visual arts. It is itself used to form two and three dimensional shapes and collages.[16][17] It has also emerged as a structural material used in furniture design.[18] Watercolor paper has a long history of manufacture and use.
types, thickness and weight
Card and paper supplies for craft purposes come in a variety of textures and colors
Paper thickness is often measured in terms of caliper, which is usually measured in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in microns (µm) in the rest of the world.[19] Paper can be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimeters (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.[20]
Paper is often characterized by its weight. In the United States, weight is the weight of a ream (bundle of 500 sheets) of different “base sizes” before the paper is cut to the size it will be sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 in × 11 in (216 mm × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds because it was cut into four pieces from larger sheets.[21] In the United States, printing paper generally weighs no more than 20 lb, 24 lb, 28 lb, or 32 lb. Cover stock generally weighs 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.
In Europe and other regions that use the ISO 216 paper size system, weight is expressed in grams per square meter (gsm or usually gsm) of paper. Printing paper is usually between 60 g/m² and 120 g/m². Anything heavier than 160gsm is considered cardboard. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.
Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on common units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.
The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not the width and length of a sheet. It was first introduced in Germany in 1922 and became widespread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard-size paper is A0 (A-zero) and measures one square meter (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). A1 is half the size of an A0 sheet (i.e. 594mm × 841mm), so two A1 sheets placed side by side are equal to one A0 sheet. A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so on. Common sizes used in the office and at home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).
The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue to 1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/cu ft) for some specialty papers. Printing paper weighs approximately 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/cu ft).[22]
Paper can be divided into seven categories:[23]
Large selection of printing paper.
of great variety. wrapping papers for protecting goods and goods. These include wax and kraft papers.
to protect property and goods. These include wax and kraft papers. Writing paper suitable for stationery needs. This includes general ledger, bank and bond paper.
suitable for stationery needs. This includes general ledger, bank and bond paper. Blotting papers with little or no sizing.
contain little or no size. Drawing papers, usually rough-surfaced, used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper.
usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper. Handmade papers, including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese papers and fabrics, all characterized by a lack of grain direction.
including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese papers and fabrics, all of which are characterized by a lack of grain direction. Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet paper and other industrial papers.
Some types of paper include:
paper stability
A book printed on acidic paper in 1920 and now unraveling a hundred years later.
Much of the early paper made from chemical pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminum sulfate salts that are significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to aid sizing,[24] making it somewhat waterproof so inks didn’t “run” or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers didn’t realize that the alum, which they added liberally to solve almost every problem encountered in the manufacture of their product, would ultimately be harmful.[25] The cellulose fibers that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum eventually degrades the fibers until the acidic paper breaks down in a process known as “slow fire”. Documents written on handmade paper are much more stable. The use of non-acidic papermaking additives is becoming more common and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.
Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component of wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to yellow materials,[26] which is why newsprint and other mechanical papers yellow with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulp does not contain appreciable amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where the whiteness of the paper is essential.
Paper made from pulp is not necessarily less durable than rag paper. The aging behavior of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not by the original source of the fibers.[27] In addition, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress demonstrate that any paper is at risk of acid degradation, since cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids.[28]
Mechanical pulping yields nearly a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as high-yield pulps. With a yield that is almost twice as high as pulp, mechanical pulp is often cheaper. Mass market paperbacks and newspapers typically use mechanical papers. Book publishers typically use acid-free paper made from fully bleached pulp for both hardcover and commercial paperbacks.
Ecological damage
The production and use of paper has a number of negative impacts on the environment.
Global paper consumption has increased by 400% over the past 40 years [clarification needed], leading to an increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees going into papermaking. Most paper companies also plant trees to help forest regrowth. Logging of old-growth forests accounts for less than 10% of pulp,[29] but is one of the most controversial issues.
Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of all waste generated in the United States each year, which accounts for 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.[30] The average US office worker prints 31 pages every day.[31] Americans also use on the order of 16 billion paper cups a year.
Conventional pulp bleaching using elemental chlorine generates and releases large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins, into the environment.[32] Dioxins are recognized as persistent environmental pollutants and are internationally regulated by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic and human health effects include reproductive, developmental, immunological and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, mainly meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissues of animals.[33]
The paper pulp and printing industries together emitted about 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010[34] and about 0.9% in 2012,[35] but less than displays: digital technologies emitted about 4% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 and the number may double by 2025.[36]
future
Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made from paper and commercially known as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.[37]
With increasing environmental concerns over synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon-based petrochemicals, zein (corn protein) has been the focus of attention as a coating for paper in high-fat applications such as popcorn bags.[38]
Also, plastics such as Tyvek and Teslin were introduced as print media as a more durable material than paper.
See also
quotes
General references
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